SOME MATHEMATICAL TERMS:

• algebra. The substitution of symbols and letters for numerical variables and constants. These symbols can be manipulated in the same way as numbers and form the basis for most mathematical calculations.
• abscissa. The x-coordinate of a point in a 2-dimensional coordinate system.
• absolute value. The positive value for a real number, disregarding the sign. Written |x|. For example, |3|=3, |-4|=4, and |0|=0.
• algebraic equation. An equation of the form f(x)=0 where f is a polynomial.
• algebraic number. A number that is the root of an algebraic polynomial. For example, sqrt(2) is an algebraic number because it is a solution of the equation x² = 2.
• angles. The inclination of one line to another. Angles are measured in degrees or radians. One revolution of a circle = 360°  = 2pi  radians.
• annulus. The region enclosed by two concentric circles.
• arithmetic. The manipulation of numbers by addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and extraction of roots.
• arithmetic mean. The arithmetic mean of n numbers is the sum of the numbers divided by n.
• average. Typically this refers to the arithmetic mean.
• base. The number of single digit numerals in a counting system. The decimal system has base 10 (0,1,2,...,9) and the binary system base 2 (0 and 1). In the expression x^y, x is called the base and y is the exponent.
• binary number. A number written to base 2.
• binary operation. A binary operation is an operation that involves two operands. For example, addition and subtraction are binary operations.
• binomial. An expression that is the sum of two terms such as a + b or a - b.
• binomial coefficient. The coefficients of x in the expansion of (x+1)ⁿ.
• bisect. To cut in half.
• calculus. The study of continuous change in functions. The two branches of calculus are differentiation and integration. Differentiation is the determination of the rate of change in a function. Integration is the summation of the changes in a function, normally regarded as the area under a curve.
• catenary. A curve whose equation is y = (a/2)(e ^x/a + e ^-x/a). A chain suspended from two points forms this curve.
• central angle. An angle between two radii of a circle.
• chord. The line joining two points on a curve is called a chord.
• circle. The set of points equidistant from a given point (the center). A circle is the path proscribed by point that rotates about a fixed origin.
• 
• circular cone. A cone whose base is a circle.
• circumcenter. The circumcenter of a triangle is the center of the circumscribed circle.
• circumcircle. The circle circumscribed about a figure.
• coefficient. The number part of an algebaric term: in 4x², 4 is the coefficient.
• complementary angles. Two angles whose sum is 90^o.
• complex number. The sum of a real number and an imaginary number, for example 3+4i where i=sqrt(-1).
• concave. Curved from the inside.
• congruent figures. two geometric figures that are identical in size and shape.
• conic section. The cross section of a right circular cone cut by a plane. An ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola are conic sections.
• coordinate geometry. System of geometry where points, lines, shape and surfaces are represented by algebraic expressions. These expressions can be presented as graphical solutions (graphs) in two of three dimensions.
• cubic equation. A polynomial equation of degree 3.
• decimal number. A number written to the base 10.
• deficient number. A positive integer that is larger than the sum of its proper divisors.
• degree. The degree of a term in one variable is the exponent of that variable. For example, the degree of 7x⁵; is 2.
• denominator. In the fraction x/y, x is called the numerator and y is called the denominator.
• diagonal. In a polygon, the line segment joining a vertex with another (non-adjacent) vertex is called a diagonal.
• diameter. The longest chord of a figure. In a circle, a diameter is a chord that passes through the center of the circle.
• differential calculus. That part of calculus that deals with the opeation of differentiation of functions.
• digit. In the decimal system, one of the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
• dihedral angle. The angle formed by two planes meeting in space.
• dividend. In the expression "a divided by b", a is the divident and b is the divisor.
• divisor. In the expression "a divided by b", a is the divident and b is the divisor.
• dodecaedron . A solid having 12 plane faces.
• domain. The domain of a function f(x) is the set of x values for which the function is defined.
• duodecimal number system. The system of numeration with base 12.
• elementary function. one of the functions: rational functions, trigonometric functions, exponential functions, and logarithmic functions.
• ellipse . A closed plane curve generated by a point moving in such a way that the sums of its distances from two fixed points is a constant: a plane section of a right circular cone that is a closed curve. A plane figure whose equation is: x²/a²+y²/b²=1.
• ellipsoid. A solid figure whose equation is x²/a²+y²/b²+z²/c²=1.
• equation. A set of mathematical symbols split by an equals sign (=). Terms are symbols that are added or subtracted. Factors are symbols that are multiplied or divided.
• equilateral polygon. A polygon all of whose sides are equal.
• equilateral triangle. A triangle with three equal sides.
• even number. An integer that is divisible by 2.
• exponent. In the expression x^y, x is called the base and y is called the exponent. See also index.
• exponential function. The function f(x)=e^x.
• expoential function to base a. The function f(x)=a^x.
• factor. The integer divisors of a number. 1, 2 and 7 are the factors of 14.
• factorial. n! (read n factorial) is equal to the product of the integers from 1 to n.
• Fermat number. A number of the form 2⁽²ⁿ⁾+1.
• Fibonacci number. A member of the sequence 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5,... where each number is the sum of the previous two numbers.
• formula. A concise statement expressing the symbolic relationship between two or more quantities.
• fraction. An expression of the form a/b.
• frequency. The number of times a value occurs in some time interval.
• frustum. For a given solid figure, a related figure formed by two parallel planes meeting the given solid. In particular, for a cone or pyramid, a frustum is determined by the plane of the base and a plane parallel to the base. NOTE: this word is frequently incorrectly misspelled as frustrum.
• Gaussian curve. A normal curve.
• geometry. The study of two and three dimensional space.
• geometric progression. A sequence in which the ratio of each term to the preceding term is a given constant.
• geometry. The branch of mathematics that deals with the nature of space and the size, shape, and other properties of figures as well as the transformations that preserve these properties.
• golden ratio. (1+Sqrt[5])/2.
• graph. A graph is a set of points (called vertices) and a set of lines (called edges) joinging these vertices.
• great circle. A circle on the surface of a sphere whose center is the center of the sphere.
• greatest common divisor/factor. The greatest common divisor of a sequence of integers, is the largest integer that divides each of them exactly.
• hexagon . A plane figure having six sides and six angles.
• hyperbola. A plane curve generated by a point so moving that the difference of the distances from two fixed points is a constant: a curve formed by the intersection of a double right circular cone with a plane that cuts both halves of the cone. A curve with equation x²/a²-y²/b²=1. or ²+y²/b²-z²/c²=-1.
• hypotenuse. The longest side of a right triangle.
• icosaedron . A polyhedron having 20 faces.
• identities..  Algebraic relationships:
•     (a + b)² = a² + 2ab + b²   
•     (a + b)(a - b ) = (a² - b²)     
•     a(b + c) = ab + ac     
•     1/a - 1/b = (b -a)/(ab) 
• imaginary number. A complex number of the form xi where x is real and i=sqrt(-1).
• imaginary part. The imaginary part of a complex number x+iy where x and y are real is y.
• index. A superscript indicating the number of times a number is multiplied by itself. Examples of indexes are:
•     aⁿ x a^m = a^{(n +m)}   
•     a^-n = 1/aⁿ    
•     a^1/n = ⁿÖa     
•     (aⁿ)^m = a^nm  
• inequality. The statement that one quantity is less than (or greater than) another.
• infinitesimal. A variable that approaches 0 as a limit.
• inflection. A point of inflection of a plane curve is a point where the curve has a stationary tangent, at which the tangent is changing from rotating in one direction to rotating in the oppostie direction.
• integer. One of the numbers ..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... A whole number.
• irrational number. Any real number that is not rational, that is it cannot be written as a terminating or repeating decimal. These include p, e and Ö2.
• isosceles tetrahedron. A tetrahedron in which each pair of opposite sides have the same length.
• isosceles triangle. A triangle with two equal sides.
• isosceles trapezoid. Ain which the two non-parallel sides have the same length.
• least common multiple. The least common multiple of a set of integers is the smallest integer that is an exact multiple of every number in the set.
• linear function. A function of the form y=ax+b.
• line segment. The part of a line between two given distinct points on that line (including the two points).
• logarithm. A logarithm is the exponent of a number to a specified base. If bn = x then n is the logarithm of x to the base b.
• lowest common denominator. The smallest number that is exactly divisible by each denominator of a set of fractions.
• major axis. The major axis of an ellipse is it's longest chord.
• maximum. The largest of a set of values.
• mensuration. The act of measuring. Geometry applied to the computation of lengths, areas, or volumes from given dimensions or angles.
• minor axis. The minor axis of an ellipse is its smallest chord.
• minimum. The smallest of a set of values.
• mode. The most frequently occurring value in a sequence of numbers.
• multiple. The integer b is a multiple of the integer a if there is an integer d such that b=da.
• natural number. Any one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... .
• negative number. A number smaller than 0.
• normal. perpendicular
• numbers. Numbers are either real or complex. Real numbers are those used for counting and range from -  to + . Complex numbers are those that contain Ö-1 , usually denoted i so that i² = -1.
• number line. A line on which each point represents a real number.
• numerator. In the fraction x/y, x is called the numerator and y is called the denominator.
• oblique angle. an angle that is not 90^o
• oblique triangle. A triangle that is not a right triangle.
• obtuse angle. an angle larger than 90^o but smaller than 180^o
• obtuse triangle. A triangle that contains an obtuse angle.
• octagon . A plane figure having eight angles and eight sides.
• octoedron . A solid bounded by eight plane faces.
• odd number. An integer that is not divisible by 2.
• ordinate. The y-coordinate of a point in the plane.
• origin. The point in a coordinate plane with coordinates (0,0).
• parabola . A plane curve generated by a point moving so that its distance from a fixed point is equal to its distance from a fixed line: the intersection of a right circular cone with a plane parallel to an element of the cone.
• parallel . Lying or extending alongside of one another and always at the same distance apart; continuously equidistant: said of two or more lines, surfaces, or concrete things.
• parallelogram . A four-sided rectilineal figure whose opposite sides are parallel but the internal angles are greater or less than 90 degrees.
• percentage. A number represented as a fraction of 100. Percentages may be written as a proper fraction or as a decimal fraction, ie: 48% is 48/100 or 0.48.
• perfect number. A positive integer that is equal to the sum of its proper divisors. For example, 28 is perfect because 28=1+2+4+7+14.
• perpendicular . Situated at right angles to the plane of the horizon, or directly up or down; vertical.
• prime. A prime number is an integer larger than 1 whose only positive divisors are 1 and itself.
• Pythagorean triangle. A right triangle whose sides are integers.
• platonic solids (polyhedrons). Solids with faces of equal shape. There are only five:
• Tetrahedron - 4 triangular faces  
• Cube - 6 square faces   
• Octahedrons - 8 triangular faces   
• Dodecahedron - 12 pentagonal faces   
• Icosahedron - 20 triangular faces
• polygons. Figures with sides of equal length and equal internal angles. The first 10 are:
• Triangle - 3 sides   
• Quadrangle - 4 sides   
• Pentagon - 5 sides   
• Hexagon - 6 sides   
• Heptagon - 7 sides   
• Octagon - 8 sides   
• Nonagon - 9 sides   
• Decagon -10 sides   
• Dodecagon - 12 sides   
• Icosagon - 20 sides
• power. A general term for squares, cubes etcetera.
• primes. Numbers whose only factors are 1 and itself. Unity (1) is not a prime. The first seven primes are: 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 and 19.
• probability. The likelyhood that something will happen.
• Pythagoras' Theorem. For any right-angled triangle, the square of the longest side (R) is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides (x and y)
• QED. Abbreviation for quod erat demonstrandum, used to denote the end of a proof.
• quadrangular prism. A prism whose base is a quadrilateral.
• quadrangular pyramid. A pyramid whose base is a quadrilateral.
• quadrant. Any one of the four portions of the plane into which the plane is divided by the coordinate axes.
• quadratic equation. An equation of the form f(x)=0 where f(x) is a second degree polynomial. That is, ax² + bx + c = 0.
• quadrilateral. A geometric figure with four sides.
• quotient. The result of a division.
• radians. Circular measure where the circumference of a circle is divided in to a number of arcs each equal in length to the radius.  There are 2pi  radians in 1 revolution. One radian = 180/pi degrees. One radian is approximately 57.3^o.
• ratio. quotient of two numbers.
• rational number. A rational number is a number that is the ratio of two integers. All other real numbers are said to be irrational. All rational numbers can be written as a terminating or repeating decimal.
• real part. The real number x is called ther eal part of the complex number x+iy where x and y are real and i=sqrt(-1).
• reciprocal. A number divided into 1. The reciprocal of 7 is 1/7.
• reflex angle. An angle between 180^o and 360^o.
• rhombus. A parallelogram with four equal sides.
• right angle. an angle formed by two perpendicular lines; a 90^o angle.
• right triangle. A triangle that contains a right angle.
• scalene triangle. A triangle with unequal sides.
• secant. A straight line that meets a curve in two or more points.
• sequence. A collection of numbers in a prescribed order: a₁, a₂, a₃, a₄, ...
• series. The sum of a finite or infinite sequence
• similar figures. Two geometric figures are similar if their sides are in proportion and all their angles are the same.
• spherical trigonometry. The branch of mathematics dealing with measurements on the sphere.
• square. A quadrilateral with 4 equal sides and 4 right angles.
• square number. A number of the form n^2.
• supplementary. Two angels are supplementary of they add up to 180^o.
• tangent. A line that meets a smooth curve at a single point and does not cut across the curve.
• torus. A geometric solid in the shape of a donut.
• transcendental number. A number that is not algebraic.
• trapezium. A quadrilateral in which no sides are parallel.
• trapezoid. A quadrilateral in which two sides are parallel.
• triangle. A geometric figure with three sides.   The sum of the internal angles of any triangle is 180 . The four basic triangle types are:
• right-angled - one angle equal to 90^o  
• isosceles - two sides of equal length   
• equilateral  -all sides of equal length   
• scalene  -no equality in any of the sides.
• trigonometry. The branch of mathematics exploiting the properties of right angled triangles. The trigonometric identities are: sine, cosine and tangent and are determined as follows:
• 
• truncated pyramid. A section of a pyramid between its base and a plane parallel to the base.
• twin primes. Two prime numbers that differ by 2. For example, 11 and 13 are twin primes.
• unilateral surface. A surface with only one side, such as a Moebius strip.
• unit circle. A unit circle is a circle with radius 1.
• unit cube. A cube with edge length 1.
• unit fraction. A fraction whose numerator is 1.
• unit square. A unit square is a square of side length 1.
• unity. one
• volume. The measure of spce occupied by a solid body.
• vulgar fraction. A common fraction.
• whole number. A natural number.
• x-axis. The horizontal axis in the plane.
• x-intercept. The point at which a line crosses the x-axis.
• y-axis. The vertical axis in the plane.
• y-intercept. The point at which a line crosses the y-axis.

SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS

• absolute zero. The lowest theoretical temperature (0K = -273.16°C) where all molecular activity ceases.
• acceleration.  Rate of change of velocity.
• acid.  A compound that yields hydrogen ions (H⁺) when in aqueous solution.  Acids have a sour taste and turn blue litmus red.
• activation energy.  The energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.
• adiabatic system.  A system that neither gains or looses heat.
• alcohol.  Organic compound used in gums, resins, dyes and perfumes.  Fermentation produces ethanol not alcohol.
• alkali.  A base that is soluble in water.
• allele.  Gene variant.
• allotrope.  Element with more than one natural form.
• alloy.  A substance formed by the combination of two or more elements, at least one of which must be a metal.
• amino acids.  Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen compounds the composition of which are determined by genes.
• anion.  A negative ion.
• atomic number.  The number of protons in an atom..
• atomic symbol.  The letters representing each of the elements.
• atomic weight.  The average weight of an atom.
• atoms.  Composite particles of protons, neutrons and electrons.  The smallest part of a substance that can take part in a chemical reaction.  Click here for more information.
• baryon.  A three quark hadron.  The most common baryons are protons and neutrons.
• base.  A compound that yields hydroxide (OH^- ) ions when in aqueous solution.  Bases have a bitter taste, feel greasy and turn red litmus blue.
• biosynthesis.  The production of cellular material.
• boiling point.  The temperature at which a liquid turns to a vapour.
• bond.  A chemical link between atoms.
• capacitance.  The ability to store an electric charge.
• carbohydrates.  The major energy source within plants and animals: sugars, starches and glucose polymers.
• carbon.  The basic element in all organic compounds.
• catalyst.  A substance that reduces the activation energy of a reaction.
• cation.  A positive ion.
• cell.  The smallest independent part of an organism.
• chain reaction.  Polymerisation initiated by the bonding of a free radical with a monomer.
• charge.  The amount of unbalanced electricity in a system.  Either positive or negative.
• chemical equation.  The mathematical representation of a chemical reaction.
• chemical (empirical) formula.  The ratio of elements in a substance.  For example: the chemical formula of common salt is NaCl, sodium and chlorine in a ratio of 1:1.
• chemical reaction.  The transformation of substances by the rearrangement of their atoms.
• chromosomes.  DNAmolecules that contain the set of instructions required to build and maintain cells.
• compound.  A substance containing more than one element.
• conduction.  Heat or electricity transfer through molecular interaction, eg: heat passing along a metal bar.
• convection.  Heat transfer through the movement of a fluid, eg: warm air rising.
• coulomb attraction.  Electrostatic attraction between bodies of opposite charge
• covalent bond.  A bond formed between atoms that share electrons.
• crystal.  Solid substance with a regular geometirc arrangement of atoms.
• cytosol.  Jelly-like substance within cells.
• density.  The mass per unit volume in a substance.
• diffraction.  The deviation in the path of a wave that encounters the edge of an obstacle.
• diffusion.  The random movement of molecules within a fluid.
• DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid.  Twisted helical polymer chains.  See chromosomes.
• elasticity.  The ability of a body to regain its original shape after deformation.
• electric current.  A flow of electrons through a conductor, the size of the current is proportional to the rate of electron flow.
• electrons.  Negatively charged atomic particles.
• electromagnetic waves.  Waves with both an electric and magnetic component.  They are: radio, micro, infra-red, visible light, ultraviolet, X and gamma rays.
• electrolyte.  An ion solution that is an electrical conductior.
• element.  A substance composed of atoms all with the same atomic number.  A substance that cannot be split chemically into smaller substances.
• endothermic reaction.  A reaction in which heat is absorbed ie: melting or boiling.
• energy.  The capacity to do work.  Work is done by transferring energy from one form to another.  For example the chemical energy in a fuel is converted to thermal energy as it burns.  See also Laws of Thermodynamics.
• entropy. The state of disorder in a thermodynamic system: the more energy the higher the entropy.
• enzymes.  Biological catalysts, proteins that control specific processes within the body.
• equilibrium.  A stable situation in which products and reactants are balanced.
• evaporation.  The change of state of a substance from a liquid to a gas below its boiling point.
• evolution.  Natural selection, the survival of the fittest, is the driving force behind evolution and is measured by a species viability and fecundity. Governed by Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection:
• 1.    The distinguishing features (characters) of an organism may affect it fitness.
• 2.    The design of an species (its morphology) differs within a population and may improve its fitness.
• 3.    An organism may be susceptible to a lack of vital resources, predation and disease reducing its fitness.
• 4.    The characters that improve fitness must be inherited.  Individuals that inherit these characters will survive at the expense of those who do not.
• 5.    Mutation is essential for evolution: the inheritance of non-standard genes that improve fitness.
• Note: Fitness is the ability to survive and reproduce, not necessarily a measure of physical fitness.
• exothermic reaction.  A reaction from which heat is lost eg: combustion.
• fats.  Molecules of fatty acids or glycerol.  Used as a food store, insulation and for shock absorption.
• fecundity.  The ability to breed.
• field.  A region in space that is defined by a vector function.  Common fields are: gravitational, electric and magnetic.
• fission.  Splitting the nucleus of an atom into smaller units.
• fluid.  A liquid or gas.
• force.  An action (transfer of energy) that will accelerate a body in the direction of the applied force.  See Newtons Laws of Motion.
• free radical.  A highly reactive molecule used to start the production of a polymer chain.
• frequency.  The rate as which periodic motion repeats itself.
• friction.  The interaction between surfaces: a measure of the resistance felt when sliding one body over another.
• fundamental particles.  Those particles that are not known to contain any smaller components: leptons, quarks and gauge bosons.
• fusion.  1.  Change of state of a substance from a solid to a liquid.  2.  The joining together of two atomic nuclei.
• gametes.  Sex cells (spermatozoa or ova) that carry the genes donated by each parent.
• gauge bosons.  Particles that mediate the transfer of energy between other particles: protons, gravitons, W and Z particles.
• gene.  A unit of inheritance.  A section of DNA.  comprising a sequence of four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
• genome.  The collective noun for a set of genes.  The human genome contains 100 000 genes.
• gravity.  The attraction that all bodies have for one another.
• hadrons.  Quark composites: mesons and baryons. Protons and neutrons are the most common hadrons.
• half-life.  The time taken for the level of radioactivity in an element to halve.
• halogen.  Highly reactive gases forming group 7 of the periodic table.
• heat.  The internal energy of a body (substance).
• hydrocarbon.  Compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon atoms.
• ideal gas.  One which obeys the ideal gas law.  At low pressures, real gases behave like ideas gases.
• inertia.  Tendency of a body to remain at rest or move in straight line.
• inheritance.  The features of an organism are determined by a set of chromosomes.  These originate in the parents and are passed on to an offspring during fertilisation. It follows then that since chromosomes are inherited, all the features of an organism must be inherited.
• ion.  Atom with an unbalanced electrical charge caused by the loss or gain of one or more electrons.
• ionic bond.  An bond formed by the electro-magnetic attraction between ions of opposite charge.
• isomer.  Chemical compounds with the same composition but different shapes.
• isomeric structure.  The shape of a molecule.  The isomeric structure is determined by the order in which the atoms are bonded together.
• isotope.  An element that has more or less neutrons than normal.  Many isotopes are radioactive.
• kinetic energy.  The energy possessed by a body in motion.
• latent heat.  The amount of energy required to change a solid to a liquid or liquid to a gas.
• Laws of Themodynamics.
• 1.    The amount of energy in the universe is fixed.  It cannot be created or destroyed only changed from one state to another.
• 2.    Heat cannot pass from a cold to a hot body.  The opposite condition where heat always flows from a hot to a cold body is valid for the whole universe.
• lens.  Light modifier.  Convex lenses focus and concave lens diffuse light waves.
• leptons.  Fundamental particles that are relatively non-reactive and capable of an independent existence: electrons, muons, tau particles and neutrinos.
• light.  The visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.  White light is a combination of all the above colours.
• magnet.   A body which produces a magnetic field.  All magnets are di-pole and follow the rule that like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
• mass.  The quantity of matter in a body.
• mesons.  Two quarkhadrons, the product of radioactive decay.
• metals.  Elements characterised by their opacity, malleability and thermal and electrical conductivity.
• mitochondria.  Organelles that convert glucose into energy.
• molecular formula.  The number and types of atom in a molecule.  For example the molecular formula of methane is CH₄, one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen.
• molecule.  A group of atoms bonded together.  It is the smallest part of a substance that retains the chemical properties of the whole.
• moment.  A rotating effect.  See torque.
• momentum.  The product of mass times velocity.  Momentum is conserved in any system of particles.
• monomers.  Small molecules that link together to form a polymer.
• neutralization.  A reaction in which the characteristics of an acid or base disappear.
• neutrons.  Particles with zero charge forming part of an atomic nuclei. 3 quarkhadrons.
• Newtons Laws of Motion.  Classical laws which enable the prediction of the path of any object from a grain of sand to entire galaxies:
• 1.    A body will remain at rest or move with a constant velocity unless acted upon by an outside force.
• 2.    The acceleration of a body is proportional to the applied force.  This is expressed by the universal formula:  Force = mass × acceleration.
• 3.    For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• noble gases.  Elements with zero valency.  They form group 0 in the periodic table and are non-reactive.
• nucleus.  1. Organelle containing the chromosomes.  2.  That part of an atom containing the protons and neutrons.
• organelles.  Specialized organs within cells.
• organic compounds. Substances that contain Carbon.
• ozone.  An isotope of oxygen that blocks ultra-violet radiation.  Normally found in the stratosphere.
• pH Scale.  The strength of acids and bases.  Pure water has a pH value of 7, acids have a lower value and bases higher.
• phase changes.  Freezing or boiling.
• photo-synthesis.  The conversion of water and carbon-dioxide by plants into glucose and oxygen.  Light is used as an energy source.
• photons.  Fundamental quantum particles.  It is the interaction of photons with other particles that drives the universe.
• polymerisation.  The repetitive bonding of small molecules (monomers) to produce large molecules (polymers).
• polymers.  Long chain molecules such as PVC, nylon or DNA produced by the polymerisation of monomers.
• potential difference.  The voltage difference between two points.  Electricity flows from a high to low level of potential.
• potential energy.  Amount of useable energy within a body at rest.
• power.  Amount of work done per second.
• products.  The substances produced in a chemical reaction.
• proteins.  Amino acid polymers with specific biological functions, especially the growth, regeneration and repair of cells.
• protons.  Positively charged particles forming part of atomic nuclei. 3 quarkhadrons.
• quantum theory.  The theory that energy can only be absorbed or radiated in discrete values or quanta.  All particles are subject to quantum theory. Click here to find out more.
• quarks.  Fundamental particles, incapable of  independent existence, that combine to form particles such as protons and neutrons.
• radiation.  1.  Transfer of heat between bodies without a change in the temperature of the intervening medium.  2.  Any release of energy from its source.
• radioactivity.  The spontaneous release of energy from atomic nuclei.
• reactants.  The substances that take part in a chemical reaction.
• refraction.  The deflection of a wave as it passes from one medium to another, eg through a lens.
• (relative atomic mass RAM).  The mass of an atom relative to one atom of carbon.  Carbon has a RAM of 12.
• relativity.  The relative values of time, motion, mass and energy of a body in motion. Click here for more information
• reproduction.  Reproduction is the process by which a new organism is produced.  The first stage in the production of any organism is the fertilisation of an ova by spermatozoa (or spores on the case of plants).  Fertilisation produces a single cell called a zygote which contains all the information required to build the adult organism.  The progression (growth) from zygote to adult is achieved through cell division.
• resistance.  Opposition to current flow in a conductor.
• resonance.  A state where the natural frequency of a body equals an applied frequency.
• respiration.  The production of energy by the oxidisation of glucose.
• scalar.  A quantity that is defined by its magnitude only (ie energy, temperature).
• simple harmonic motion.  A repeating motion about a central equilibrium point (pendulum, weighted spring).
• special relativity.  The observable effects on a body in motion.  As velocity increases, time slows down, mass increases and lengths contract.
• speciation.  A group of organisms that are able to interbreed all belong to the same species.  It follows then that organisms that are unable to interbreed belong to separate species.
• specific heat.  The heat capacity of a body.
• standard model. The organization and relationships between fundamental particles. Click here for more information.
• strain.  The deformation of a body under an applied load.
• stress.  The measure of the force acting on a body.
• temperature.  How hot one body is when compared to another.
• torque.  The tendency of a body to rotate under an applied force..
• uncertainty.  It is impossible to know exactly where something is and where it is going. This is a fundamental law of nature has a major effect on quantum theory.
• valency.  A measure of the reactivity of an element.
• vector.   A quantity that is determined by its magnitude and direction: forces and fields (see scalar).
• velocity.  The rate of change of distance with respect to time.
• viability.  The ability to survive to adulthood.
• viscosity.  The internal friction of a fluid, thick fluids have a high viscosity and thin fluids low.
• weight.  The gravitational force exerted on a mass.
• work.  The amount of energy transferred to a system.
• zygote.  A fertilised egg, the fusion of a male and female gamete.

ALPHABETIC GLOSSARY OF GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS:

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