Name | Awarded For |
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan | Chemistry |
Thomas A. Steitz | Chemistry |
Ada E. Yonath | Chemistry |
Herta Müller | Literature |
Elizabeth H. Blackburn | Medicine |
Carol W. Greider | Medicine |
Jack W. Szostak | Medicine |
Barack Obama | Peace |
Willard S. Boyle | Physics |
Charles K. Kao | Physics |
George E. Smith | Physics |
ABBREVIATIONS
A
ABM: Anti Ballistic Missiles
ABVP: Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad
AC: Alternating Current; Ashoka Chakra
ACU: Asian Currency Union
AD: anno Domini; in the year of Lord Christ
ADB: Asian Development Bank
ADC: Aide-de-Camp; Access Deficit Charge
ADF: Asian Development Fund
ADS: Air Defence Ship
AJT: Advanced Jet Trainer
AG: Accountant General; Adjutant General
AI: Air India
AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
AIIMS: All India Institute of Medical Sciences
AIR: All India Radio; Annual Information Report
AITUC: All India Trade Union Congress
AJT: Advanced Jet Trainer
ALH: Advanced Light Helicopter
AM: ante meridiem; before noon
AMC: Army Medical Corps; Asset Management Companies
AME: Associate Member of the Institute of Engineers
APC: Agricultural Prices Commission
APEC: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
APPLE: Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment
APPU: Asian Pacific Postal Union
ARC: Asset Reconstruction Company
ARDR: Agricultural and Rural Debt Relief
ASAT: Anti-Satellite weapon
ASC: Army Service Corps
ASCI: Advanced Strategic Computing Initiative
ASCII: American Standard Code for Information
ASEAN: Association of South-East Asian Nations
ASEM: Asia-Europe Meeting
ASIMO: Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility
ASLV: Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
ASMA: Antarctica Specially Managed Area
ASSOCHAM: Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry
ATA: Air Time Authority; Allen Telescope Array
ATC: Air Traffic Controller
ATM: Automatic Teller Machine
ATR: Action Taken Report
ATV: Automatic Transfer Vehicle
AUM: Assets Under Management
AVC: Army Veterinary Corps
AVM: Additional Volatility Margin
AWACS: Airborne Warning and Control System
B
BARC: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation
BC: Before Christ; Board of Control; British Columbia; Battery Commander
BCG: Bacillus Calmette Guerin—Anti-Tuberculosis Vaccine
BICP: Bureau of Industrial Costs and Prices
BIFR: Board of Industrial and Financial Reconstruction
BIOS: Basic Input Output System
BKU: Bharatiya Kisan Union
BMD: Ballistic Missile Defence System
BOLT: BSE On-Line Trading (System)
BOSS: Bharat Operating System Solutions
BPO: Business Process Outsourcing
BPR: Bottom Pressure Records
BRO: Border Road Organisation
BSE: Bombay Stock Exchange
BSF: Border Security Force
BSNL: Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd
C
CA: Chartered Accountant
CABE: Central Advisory Board of Education
C & AG: Comptroller & Auditor General
CAIR: Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics
CAPART: Council for People’s Action and Advancement of Rural Technology
CAPES: Computer-Aided Paperless Examination System
CAS: Chief of Army Staff; Chief of Air Staff; Conditional Access System
CB: Citizen Band (Radio)
CBI: Central Bureau of Investigation
CBFC: Central Board of Film Certification
CCPA: Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs
CD: Conference on Disarmament
C-DAC: The Centre for Development of Advanced Computing
CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access
CECA: Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement
CERN: European Organisation for Nuclear Research (Pronounced CERN in French)
CFC: Chlorofluro Carbon
CFS: Container Freight Station
CHOGM: Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting
CIA: Central Intelligence Agency (of U.S.A.)
CIBIL: Credit Information Bureau (India) Ltd
CIC: Chief Information Commissioner
CID: Criminal Investigation Department
C-in-C: Commander-in-Chief
cif: cost, insurance and freight
CIS: Commonwealth of Independent States
CISF: Central Industrial Security Force
CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
CITU: Centre of Indian Trade Unions
CLASS: Computer Literacy and Studies in Schools
CLAWS: Centre for Land Warfare Studies
CM: Command Module; Chief Minister
CMP: Common Minimum Programme
CNG: Compressed Natural Gas
CNN: Cable News Network
CNS: Chief of the Naval Staff
CO: Commanding Officer
COD: Central Ordnance Depot; Cash on Delivery
CPCB: Central Pollution Control Board
CPI: Communist Party of India
CPI(M): Communist Party of India (Marxists)
CPU: Central Processing Unit
CR: Central Railway
CRAC: Cyber Regulation Advisory Council
CRDi: Common Rail Direct injection
CRISIL: Credit Rating Information Services of India Limited
CRM: Customer Relationship Management
CRR: Cash Reserve Ratio
CRPF: Central Reserve Police Force
CSIR: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
CTBT: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
CTT: Commodities Transaction Tax
CVRDE: Combat Vehicles Research and Development Establishment
D
DA: Dearness Allowance; Daily Allowance
DAVP: Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity
DC: Deputy Commissioner; Direct Current in Electricity
DDT: Dichloro-Diphenyl Trichloro-ethane (disinfectant)
DIN: Director Information Number
DM: District Magistrate; Deputy Minister
DMIC: Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor
DMK: Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (a regional political party of Tamil Nadu)
DNA: de-oxyribonucleic acid
DO: Demi-official (letter)
DOD: Department of Ocean Development
DPEP: District Primary Education Programme
DPI: Director of Public Instruction
DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory
DRDO: Defence Research and Development Organisation
DST: Daylight Saving Time
DRES: Department of Renewable Energy Sources
DTH: Direct to Home (broadcasting)
E
ECG: Electro Cardio-gram
ECS: Electronic Clearing Service
ECT: Electro-convulsant Therapy (electric shock treatment)
EDUSAT: Education Satellite
EEG: Electro-encephalography
EET: Exempt Exempt Taxation
EFA: Education for All
EFF: Extended Fund Facility
e.g.: exempli gratia; for example
EHTP: Electronic Hardware Technology Parks
ELISA: Enzyme Linked Immuno Solvent Assay (used for testing AIDS)
EMI: Equated Monthly Instalment
EMS: European Monetary System
EMU: Electric-Multiple Unit; Extra-vehicular Mobility Unit; (European) Economic and Monetary Union
E & OE: Errors and Omissions Excepted
EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
ER: Eastern Railway
ERM: Exchange Rate Mechanism
ERNET: Educational and Research Network
ESA: European Space Agency
ESCAP: Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
ESMA: Essential Services Maintenance Act
ESOP: Employee Stock Option Programme
etc.: et cetera (and other things)
EU: European Union
EVM: Electronic Voting Machine
F
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organisation
FBI: Federal Bureau of Investigation (of the U.S.A.)
FCNR: Foreign Currency (non-resident) Accounts Scheme
FDR: Flight Data Recorder; Fixed Deposit Receipt
FEMA: Foreign Exchange Management Act
FERA: Foreign Exchange Regulations Act
FICCI: Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
FII: Foreign Institutional Investors
FIPB: Foreign Investment Promotion Board (of India)
FLAG: Fibre Optic Link Around the Globe
FM: Field Marshal; Frequency Modulated
FPSB: Financial Planning Standards Boards (India)
FRBM: Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management
FSSA: Food Safety and Standards Authority (of India)
FTA: Free Trade Area
FTP: File Transfer Protocol
G
GAGAN: GPS-aided Geo-augmented Navigation
GAIL: Gas Authority of India Limited
GAIN: Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition
GATS: General Agreement on Trade in Services
GATT: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GCA: General Currency Area
GCC: Gulf Cooperation Council
GCM: Greatest Common Measure
GEF: Global Environment Fund
GHQ: General Headquarters
GIC: General Insurance Corporation
GIST: Graphics and Intelligence-based Script Technology
GMPS: Global Mobile Personal Communications System
GMRT: Giant Meterwave Radio Telescope
GMT: Greenwich Mean Time
GNSS: Global Navigation Satellite System
GNP: Gross National Product
GOC: General Officer Commanding
GPO: General Post Office
GPRS: General Packet Radio System
GPS: Global Positioning System
GSLV: Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
GSP: Generalised Special Preferences
GST: Goods and Service Tax
GSTP: Global System of Trade Preferences
H
HAWS: High Altitude Warfare School
HCF: Highest Common Factor
HDI: Human Development Index
HDTV: High Definition Television
HE: His (or Her) Excellency; His (or Her) Eminence; High Explosive; Horizontal Equivalent
HITS: Headend In The Sky
HMMWV: High Mobility Multipurpose-Wheeled Vehicle
HMS: Hybrid Mail Service
HP: Himachal Pradesh; Horizontal Plane; Horse Power
HTML: Hyper Text Markup Language
HTTP: Hypetext Transfer Protocol
HUDCO: Housing and Urban Development Corporation
HVDC: High Voltage Direct Current
I
IAAI: International Airport Authority of India
IAAS: Indian Audit and Accounts Service
IADF: International Agricultural Development Fund
IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency
IAF: Indian Air Force
IAMC: Indian Army Medical Corps
IAS: Indian Administrative Service
IATA: International Air Transport Association
IATT: Inland Air Travel Tax
IBRD: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
IBEX: Interstellar Boundary Explorer Mission
ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organisation
ICAR: Indian Council of Agricultural Research
ICCR: Indian Council of Cultural Relations
ICCW: Indian Council for Child Welfare
ICDS: Integrated Child Development Service
ICJ: International Court of Justice (with Headquarters at the Hague)
ICL: Indian Cricket League
ICMR: Indian Council of Medical Research
ICPA: Indian Cricket Players’ Association
ICRC: International Committee of the Red Cross
IDA: International Development Association
IDBI: Industrial Development Bank of India
IDSA: Institute of Defence Studies and Analysis
i.e.: id est; that is
IEA: International Energy Agency
IES: Indian Economic Service
IEX: Indian Energy Exchange
IFRS: International Financial Reporting Standard
IFS: Indian Foreign Service; Indian Forest Service
IFTU: International Federation of Trade Unions
IFWJ: Indian Federation of Working Journalists
IGNOU: Indira Gandhi National Open University
IIPA: Indian Institute of Public Administration
IISS: International Institute of Strategic Studies
IIT: Indian Institutes of Technology
ILO: International Labour Organisation
IMA: Indian Military Academy
IMET: International Military Education Training Programme
IMF: International Monetary Fund
IMO: International Maritime Organisation
IN: Indian Navy; Intelligent Network
INA: Indian National Army
INK: International Newspaper Kiosks
INMARSAT: International Maritime Satellite Organisation
INMAS: Institute of Nuclear Medicines and Allied Sciences
INS: Indian Naval Ship; Indian Newspaper Society
INSAS: Indian Small Arms System
INSAT: Indian National Satellite
INTERPOL: International Police Organisation
INTUC: Indian National Trade Union Congress
IOC: International Olympic Committee
IP: Indian Police
IPC: Indian Penal Code
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPEC: International Programme on Elimination of Child Labour
IPR: Intellectual Property Right
IPS: Indian Police Service; Indian Postal Service
IPTV: Internet Protocol Television
IPU: Inter-Parliamentary Union
IQ: Intelligence Quotient
IR: Infra-red
IRA: Insurance Regulatory Authority
IRBM: Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile
IREP: Integrated Rural Energy Planning
IRS: Indian Remote Sensing Satellite; Indian Revenue Service
ISAF: International Stabilization and Assistance Force (in Afghanistan)
ISC: Inter-State Council
ISCS: Integrated Smart Card System
ISD: International Subscriber Dialled (telephone)
ISH: Information Super Highway
ISKCON: International Society for Krishna Consciousness
ISO: International Standardisation Organisation
ISP: Internet Service Provider
ISRO: Indian Space Research Organisation
ISS: International Space Station
IST: Indian Standard Time
ISTRAC: ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network
ITDC: Indian Tourism Development Corporation
ITO: International Trade Organisation; Income-tax Officer
ITU: International Tele-communication Union
IUC: Interconnect User Charge
J
JCO: Junior Commissioned Officer
JNNURM: Jawahar Lal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
JPC: Joint Parliamentary Committee
JPEG: Joint Photographic Experts Group
JWG: Joint Working Group
K
KG: Kindergarten
Kg: Kilogramme
KPO: Knowledge Process Outsourcing
L
LAC: Line of Actual Control
LCA: Light Combat Aircraft
LDC: Least Developed Countries
LHC: Large Hadron Collider
LIC: Life Insurance Corporation (of India)
LLP: Limited Liability Partnership
LOAC: Line of Actual Control
LTA: Light Transport Aircraft
LTTE: Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
M
MAT: Minimum Alternative Tax
MER: Mars Exploration Rover
MBBS: Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery
MCF: Master Control Facility
MEP: Minimum Export Price
MES: Military Engineering Service
METSAT: Meteorological Satellite
MFA: Multi-Fibre Agreement
MFN: Most Favoured Nation
MIP: Moon Impact Probe
MMS: Multimedia Messaging Service
MMTC: Minerals and Metals Trading Corporation of India
MNC: Multi-national Corporation
MNIC: Multi-purpose National Identity Card
MODEM: Modulator-Demodulator
MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MRTPC: Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Commission
MRTS: Mass Rapid Transit System
MSA: Maritime Safety Agency
MSCF: Maritime Security Cooperation Framework
Mss: Manuscript
MTCR: Missile Technology Control Regime
MTO: Multilateral Trade Organisation
MVC: Maha Vir Chakra
MUNO: Maha Vir Chakra
N
NAA: National Airport Authority
NABARD: National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development. (It helps rural development by providing re-finance facility).
NACIL: National Aviation Company of India Ltd
NADA: National Anti-Doping Agency
NAEP: National Adult Education Programme
NAFTA: North America Free Trade Agreement
NAG: National Air Guard
NAM: Non-aligned Movement
NAMA: Non-Agriculture Market Access
NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (of the U.S.A.)
NASDAQ: National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation
NATA: Natural Aptitude Test for Architecture
NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NAV: Net Asset Value
NB: Nota bene; note well, or take notice
NCA: Nuclear Command Authority
NCC: National Cadet Corps
NCEP: National Committee on Environmental Planning
NCERT: National Council of Education Research and Training
NCR: National Capital Region
NDA: National Defence Academy; National Democratic Alliance
NDNC: National Do Not Call (Registry)
NDPS: Narcotic Drugs & Psychotropic Substances
NDRF: National Disaster Response Force
NDTL: National Dope Testing Laboratory
NeGP: National e-governance Plan
NEDB: North-Eastern Development Bank
NEP: National Education Policy
NEPA: National Environment Protection Authority
NFO: New Fund Offers
NHDP: National Highways Development Project
NHRC: National Human Rights Commission
NIC: National Integration Council
NIFT: National Institute of Fashion Technology
NIO: National Institute of Oceanography
NIS: National Institute of Sports
NIT: National Institute of Technology
NLMA: National Literacy Mission Authority
NMD: Nuclear Missile Defence
NMDC: National Mineral Development Corporation
NPL: National Physical Laboratory
NPR: National Population Register
NPT: (Nuclear) Non-Proliferation Treaty
NRBI: National Rural Bank of India
NREGA: National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
NREP: National Rural Employment Programme
NRF: National Renewal Fund
NRI: Non-Resident Indian
NRR: National Reproduction Rate
NRSA: National Remote Sensing Agency
NSA: National Security Act
NSC: National Service Corps; National Security Council
NSDL: National Securities Depository Limited
NSE: National Stock Exchange
NSR: National Skills Registry
NTPC: National Thermal Power Corporation
NWDA: National Water Development Agency
NWRC: National Water Resources Council
O
OAS: Organisation of American States
OAU: Organisation of African Unity
OBC: Other Backward Communities
OBU: Offshore Banking Unit
ODA: Official Development Assistance
ODF: Open Document Format
ODS: Ozone Depletion Substances
OECD: Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development
OGL: Open General Licence
OIC: Organisation of Islamic Countries
OIGS: On India Government Service
OIL: Oil India Limited
OM: Order of Merit
ONGC: Oil and Natural Gas Commission
OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
OSCE: Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe
OSD: Officer on Special Duty
OXML: Open Extended Marking Language
P
PAC: Political Affairs Committee; Public Accounts Committee
PACER: Programme for Acceleration of Commercial Energy Research
PAN: Permanent Account Number (of Income-Tax)
PATA: Pacific-Asia Travel Association
PCS: Public Civil Service; Punjab Civil Service
PIB: Press Information Bureau
Pin Code: Postal Index Number Code
PIO: Persons of Indian Origin
PLF: Plant Load Factor
PM: Post Meridiem; after-noon; also Postmaster; Prime Minister; post-mortem (after death)
PMG: Postmaster General
PN: Participatory Note
PO: Post Office; Postal Order
POPs: Persistent Organic Pollutants; Point of Purchase
POTA: Prevention of Terrorism Act
POW: Prisoner of War
PP: Public Prosecutor; Particular Person
PRO: Public Relations Officer
PS: Post Scriptum; Post Script; written after
PSC: Public Service Commission
PSE: Public Sector Enterprises
PSLV: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
PTA: Preferential Trade Area
PTI: Press Trust of India
PTO: Please Turn Over; Privilege Ticket Order
PUFA: Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids
PVC: Param Vir Chakra
PVSM: Param Vishisht Sewa Medal
PWD: Public Works Department
Q
QMG: Quarter Master General
QR: Quantitative Restriction
R
RAF: Rapid Action Force
RAM: Random Access Memory
RBI: Reserve Bank of India
RCC: Reinforced Concrete Cement
RDF: Rapid Development Force
RDS: Radio Data Servicing
RDSS: Radio Determination Satellite Service
REACH: Rehabilitate, Educate and Support Street Children
RLO: Returned Letter Office
RLV: Reusable Launch Vehicle
RPM: Revolution Per Minute
RPO: Recruitment Process Outsourcing; Regional Passport Officer
RRB: Regional Rural Bank
RRPI: Rural Retail Price Index
RSS: Rashtriya Swyamsevak Sangh
RSVP: Repondez s’il vous plait (Fr.) reply, if you please
RTGS: Real Time Gross Settlement System
S
SAARC: South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation
SAFTA: South Asian Free Trade Area
SAIL: Steel Authority of India Limited
SAPTA: SAARC Preferential Trading Agreement
SARS: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
SATNAV: Satellite Navigation (Initiative)
SAVE: SAARC Audio Visual Exchange
SC: Security Council; Supreme Court; Scheduled Caste
SCI: Shipping Corporation of India
SCO: Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
SCOPE: Standing Conference on Public Enterprises
SDO: Sub-Divisional Officer
SDR: Special Drawing Rights (created by the World Bank)
SEBI: Securities and Exchange Board of India
SFC: Strategic Forces Command
SGPC: Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee
SIDBI: Small Industries Development Bank of India
SIT: Special Investigation Team
SITE: Satellite Instructional Television Experiment
SLR: Statutory Liquidity Ratio
SMS: Short Messaging Service; Subscriber Management System
SOS: Save Our Souls—distress signal
SPG: Special Protection Group
SPIN: Software Process Improvement Networks
SPV: Solar Photo Voltaic
SQUID: Super-conducting Quantum Interference Device
SRE: Space Capsule Recovery Experiment
SRV: Submarine Rescue Vessel
SSN: Social Security Number
STARS: Satellite Tracking and Ranging Station
START: Strategic Arms Reduction Talks
STEP: Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Park
STT: Securities Transaction Tax
SWAN: State-wide Area Network
SWIFT: Society for Worldwide Financial Telecommunications
T
TA: Travelling Allowance; Territorial Army
TAAI: Travel Agents Association of India
TACDE: Tactics and Air Combat Development Establishment
TADA: Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act
TAPS: Tarapur Atomic Power Station
TB: Tuberculosis
TDC: Transport Development Council
TDS: Tax Deduction at Source
TDSAT: Telecom Dispute Settlement Appellate Tribunal
TERLS: Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station
TIFR: Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
TIN: Tax Information Network
TINXSYS: Tax Information Exchange System
TISCO: Tata Iron and Steel Company
TMC: Terrain Mapping Camera
TMO: Telegraphic Money Order
TNT: Tri-nitro-toluene (high explosive)
TPP: 20-Point Programme
TRAI: Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
TRIMs: Trade Related Investment Measures
TRIPS: Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights
TRP: Television Rating Points; Tax Return Preparer
TRYSEM: Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment
TTE: Travelling Ticket Examiner
TTF: Tourism Task Force
U
UAE: United Arab Emirates
UAV: Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UF: United Front
UFO: Unidentified Flying Object
UGC: University Grants Commission
ULFA: United Liberation Front of Assam
UN: United Nations
UNCTAD: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP: United Nations Development Programme
UNEF: United Nations Emergency Force
UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNFPO: United Nations Fund for Population Activities
UNHCR: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNHRC: United Nations Human Rights Commission
UNI: United News of India
UNICEF: United Nations International Children’s (Emergency) Fund
UNIDO: United Nations Industrial Development Organisation
UNRRA: United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration
UNTAC: United Nations Transitional Authority for Cambodia
UPA: United Progressive Alliance
UPSC: Union Public Service Commission
UPTN: Universal Personal Telephone Number
USA: United States of America
USIS: United States Information Service
V
VAT: Value-added Tax
VC: Vice-Chancellor; Vice Counsel; Victoria Cross; Vir Chakra
VDIS: Voluntary Disclosure of Income Scheme
VHRR: Very High Resolution Radiometer
VIP: Very Important Person
VLSI: Very Large Scale Integration
VOIP: Voice Over Internet Protocol
VPN: Virtual Private Network
VPP: Value Payable Post
VRS: Voluntary Retirement Scheme
VSAT: Very Small Aperture Terminals
W
WADA: World Anti-Doping Agency
WAP: Wireless Application Protocol
WAVE: Wireless Access for Virtual Enterprise
WDF: Wasteland Development Force
WEF: World Economic Forum
WFP: World Food Programme
WFTU: World Federation of Trade Unions
WGIG: Working Group on Internet Governance
WIPO: World Intellectual Property Organisation
WLL: Wireless in Local Loop
WMD: Weapons of Mass Destruction
WR: Western Railway
WTO: World Trade Organisation (previously called GATT); also World Tourism Organisation
X
XML: eXtensible Markup Language
Y
YMCA: Young Men’s Christian Association
YWCA: Young Women’s Christian Association
Indian History Timeline
Indian timeline takes us on a journey of the history of the subcontinent. Right from the ancient India, which included Bangladesh and Pakistan, to the free and divided India, this time line covers each and every aspect related to the past as well as present of the country. Read on further to explore the timeline of India:
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (9000 BC to 7000 BC)
The earliest records of the Indian history exist in the form of the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka. These shelters are situated on the southern edge of the central Indian plateau, in the foothills of the Vindhyan Mountains. There are five groups of rock shelters, each of them adorned with paintings that are believed to date from the Mesolithic Period right through to the historical period.
Mehrgarh Culture (7000 BC to 3300 BC)
Mehrgarh is one of the most significant sites belonging to the Neolithic Age. At the same time, it is one of the oldest sites that indicate the introduction of the concept of farming and herding. Situated on the Kachi plain of Baluchistan (Pakistan), it lies to the west of the Indus River valley. The site of Mehrgarh, spread over an area of 495-acre, was discovered in the year 1974.
Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BC to 1700 BC)
The Indus Valley Civilization was discovered in the 1920s. The major events in the timeline of the Indus Valley are given below:
Early Harappan Phase (3300 BC to 2600 BC)
The early Harappan Phase lasted for approximately 700 years, starting with the Ravi Phase. It is one of the three earliest urban civilizations and made use of an early form of the Indus script, known as Harappan script, for writing purposes. Around 2800 BC, the Kot Diji phase of the Indus Valley Civilization started.
Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BC to 1700 BC)
The Mature Harappan Phase started around 2600 BC. Large cities and urban areas started emerging and the civilization expanded to over 2,500 cities and settlements. Urban planning, excellent sewage and drainage system, system of uniform weights and measures, knowledge of proto-dentistry, etc are some of the other elements that characterize the mature phase.
Late Harappan Phase (1700 BC to 1300 BC)
The Late Harappan Phase began around 1700 BC and came to an end around 1300 BC. However, one can find many elements of the Indus Valley Civilization in later cultures.
Vedic Period/Age (1700 BC to 500 BC)
The Vedic Period or the Vedic Age refers to the time of the compilation of the sacred Vedic Sanskrit texts in India. Situated on the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the Vedic Civilization formed the basis of Hinduism and the sIndian culture. The Vedic Period can be divided into the following two phases:
Early Vedic/Rig Vedic Period (1700 BC to 1000 BC)
Early Vedic Period represents the time period when the Rig Veda was compiled. During this period, the king was believed to be the protector of the people, who took an active part in the government. The caste system started becoming rigid and the families started becoming patriarchal. The major events of this time are:
Later Vedic Age (1000 BC to 500 BC)
The emergence of the later Vedic period was marked with agriculture becoming the dominant economic activity and a decline in the significance of cattle rearing. The political organization changed completely, with the reduction in the involvement of people in the administration. The major events are:
600 BC - The formation of Sixteen Maha Janapadas (Great Kingdoms)
599 BC - The birth of Mahavira, founder of Jainism
563 BC - The birth of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), founder of Buddhism
538 BC - Cyrus the Great conquered parts of Pakistan
500 BC - Earliest written records in Brahmi
500 BC - Panini standardized grammar and morphology of Sanskrit, converting it
into Classical Sanskrit. With this, the Vedic Civilization came to an end.
Ancient India (500 BCE - 550 AD)
Rise of Jainism and Buddhism
Jainism or Jain Dharma is the religious philosophy that originated in the Ancient India. The religion is based on the teachings of the Tirthankaras. The 24th Tirthankara, Lord Mahavira, is credited with propagating the religion in the various parts of the world. Buddhism is based on the teachings of Lord Buddha, who was born as Prince Siddhartha Gautama. After attaining Enlightenment, Lord Buddha set on a task of teaching others how to achieve nirvana. His teachings were later propagated throughout the world by Emperor Asoka. The other major events of the Ancient Indian period are:
333 BC - Darius III was defeated by Alexander the Great. The Macedonian Empire was established
326 BC - Ambhi, King of Taxila surrendered to Alexander, Battle of the Hydaspes River
321 BC - Chandra Gupta Maurya established the Maurya Empire
273 BC - Emperor Ashoka took over the Maurya Empire
266 BC - Ashoka conquered most of South Asia, Afghanistan and Iran
265 BC - The battle of Kalinga, after which Emperor Ashoka embraced Buddhism
232 BC: Ashoka died and was succeeded by Dasaratha
230 BC - Satavahana Empire was established
200 to 100 BC - Tholkappiyam standardized grammar and morphology of Tamil
184 BC - Collapse of Maurya Empire with the assassination of Emperor Brihadrata, Establishment of the Sunga dynasty
180 BC - Establishment of the Indo-Greek kingdom
80 BC - Establishment of the Indo-Scythian kingdom
10 BC - Establishment of the Indo-Parthian kingdom
68 AD - Establishment of the Kushan Empire by Kujula Kadphises
78 AD - Gautamiputra Satkarni took over Satavahana Empire and defeated Scythian king Vikramaditya
240 AD - Establishment of the Gupta Empire by Sri-Gupta
320 AD - Chandragupta I took over the Gupta Empire
335 AD - Samudragupta took over the Gupta Empire and started expanding it
350 AD - Establishment of the Pallava Empire
380 AD - Chandragupta II took over the Gupta Empire
399 to 414 AD - Chinese scholar Fa-Hien traveled to India
Medieval Period (550 AD to 1526 AD)
The medieval period can be divided into the following two phases:
Early Medieval Period (Upto 1300 AD)
606 AD - Harshavardhana became the King
630 AD - Hiuen Tsiang traveled to India
761 AD - First Muslim invasion by Mohammed Bin Qasim
800 AD - The birth of Shankaracharya
814 AD - Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I became Rashtrakuta king
1000 AD - Invasion by Mahmud of Ghazni
1017AD - Alberuni traveled to India
1100s AD - Rule of the Chandelas, Cholas, Kadambas, and Rashrakutas
1120 AD - Kalyani Chalukya Empire attained peak, Vikramaditya VI introduced Vikrama Chalukya Era
1191 AD - First battle of Tarain between Mohammed Ghori & Prithivi Raj Chauhan III
1192 AD - Second battle of Tarain between Ghauri and Prithivi Raj Chauhan III
1194 AD - Battle of Chandawar between Ghauri and Jayachandra
1288 AD - Marco Polo came to India
Late Medieval Period (1300 AD to 1500 AD)
1300 AD - Establishment of the Khilji Dynasty
1336 to 1565 AD - Vijayanagar Empire
1498 AD - First voyage of Vasco-da-Gama to Goa
Post-Medieval Era (1526 AD to 1818 AD)
The major events in the post medieval era are:
1526 AD - Babur, the Mughal ruler of Kabul, invaded Delhi and Agra and killed Sultan Ibrahim Lodi
1527 AD - Battle of Khanwa, in which Babur annexed Mewar
1530 AD - Babur died and was succeeded Humayun
1556 AD - Humayun died and was succeeded by his son Akbar
1600 AD - East India company was formed in England
1605 AD - Akbar died and was succeeded by Jehangir
1628 AD - Jehangir died and was succeeded by Shah Jahan
1630 AD - Shivaji was born
1658 AD - Shah Jahan built Taj Mahal, Jamia Masjid and Red Fort.
1659 AD - Shivaji defeated Adilshahi troops at the Battle of Pratapgarh
1674 AD - Maratha Empire was established
1680 AD - Shivaji died
1707 AD - Aurangzeb died and was succeeded by Bahadur Shah I
1707 AD - Maratha Empire broke into two divisions
1734 AD - Pamheiba invaded Tripura
1737 AD - Bajirao I conquered Delhi
1740 AD - Bajirao I died and was succeeded by Balaji Bajirao
1757 AD - Battle of Plassey was fought
1761 AD - Third battle of Panipat ended the expansion of Maratha Empire
1766 AD - First Anglo-Mysore War
1777 AD - First Anglo-Maratha War
1779 AD - Battle of Wadgaon
1780 AD - Second Anglo-Mysore War
1789 AD - Third Anglo-Mysore War
1798 AD - Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
1799 AD - Tipu Sultan died, Wodeyar dynasty was restored
1803 AD - Second Anglo-Maratha War
1817 AD - Third Anglo-Maratha War begins
1818 AD - End of the Maratha Empire and British control over most of India
Colonial Era (1818 AD to 1947 AD)
The Colonial Era started with the British taking control over almost all the parts of India and ended with the freedom of India in 1947. The major events that took place during the Colonial Era are:
1829 AD - Prohibition of Sati
1857 AD - First Indian war of Independence, known as Indian Mutiny
1885 AD - Indian National Congress was formed
1930 AD - Dandi Salt March, Simon Commission, First Round Table Conference
1915 AD - Home Rule League was founded by Annie Besant
1919 AD - Massacre at Jallianwalabagh
1931 AD - Bhagat Singh was hanged by the British, Second Round Table Conference, Gandhi-Irvin Pact
1919 AD - Khilafat Movement, Jalianwala Bagh Massacre, Rowlat Act
1937 AD - Congress won power in many states, World War II broke out
1921 AD - Civil Disobedience Movement
1928 AD - Murder of Lala Lajpat Rai
1942 AD - Quit India Movement, Rise of Subhash Chandra Bose
1922 AD - Quit India Movement suspended after the Chauri-Chura violence
1946 AD - Muslim League adamant about the formation of Pakistan
1947 AD - India gained independence and witnessed partition
| WORD | SYNONYMS |
| A | |
| abandon | discard, vacate |
| accord | agree, grant |
| adversity | difficulty, misfortune |
| affluent | plentiful, rich |
| aggravate | annoy, infuriate |
| alleviate | lighten, mitigate |
| amenable | agreeable, favourable |
| anguish | distress, sorrow |
| apathetic | dispirited, lifeless |
| arrogant | disdainful, imperious |
| astonish | confound, overwhelm |
| atrocious | appalling, detestable |
| augment | add, enlarge |
| avoid | ignore, shun |
| awkward | graceless, inept |
| B | |
| baffle | confuse, deceive |
| banal | common, plain |
| barren | desolate, sterile |
| berate | criticize, disapprove |
| betray | deceive, fool |
| bias | inclination, predisposition |
| bitter | acrid, sour |
| blend | combine, mix |
| bliss | happiness, joy |
| bluff | boast, feign |
| bold | daring, fearless |
| bonus | award, gift |
| bother | annoy, irritate |
| brief | concise, short |
| brilliant | clever, intelligent |
| brisk | fast, swift |
| budget | allot, plan |
| C | |
| candid | honest, truthful |
| caricature | cartoon, imitation |
| casual | informal, natural |
| category | classification, division |
| cease | desist, stop |
| chaotic | disordered, messy |
| cherish | esteem, love |
| circumvent | avoid, go around |
| commemorate | celebrate, honour |
| compensate | balance, recompence |
| competent | able, capable |
| conceive | design, plan |
| confirmation | acknowledgement, proof |
| contradict | deny, oppose |
| contribution | donation, grant |
| courteous | polite, well-mannered |
| craving | desire, longing |
| credulous | confident, trustful |
| D | |
| damp | moist, wet |
| dare | challenge, defy |
| decay | decline, rot |
| decent | honourable, pure |
| dense | filled, packed |
| designate | name, select |
| detain | hold, keep |
| disclose | announce, reveal |
| dogma | belief, view |
| durable | constant, lasting |
| dwindle | abate, diminish |
| E | |
| eager | earnest, keen |
| eccentric | abnormal, idiosyncratic |
| elaborate | embellish, enhance |
| emanate | arise, radiate |
| embezzle | purloin, steal |
| eminent | distinguished, prominent |
| encourage | foster, induce |
| endure | last, persist |
| essential | cultured, learned |
| essential | basic, necessary |
| estimate | guess, predict |
| evaluate | appraise, judge |
| exhaust | deplete, empty |
| exhilarated | cheerful, zestful |
| explicit | definite, specific |
| F | |
| fastidious | exacting, particular |
| federation | alliance, band |
| feeble | helpless, infirm |
| fervor | intensity, passion |
| feud | argument, dispute |
| filth | dirt, squalor |
| flatter | compliment, praise |
| fleet | nimble, swift |
| frivolous | inconsequential, trivial |
| frugal | prudent, saving |
| furious | angry, outraged |
| G | |
| generous | benevolent, unselfish |
| genuine | actual, real |
| glare | gleam, glisten |
| gloomy | cheerless, dim |
| goad | provoke, badger |
| grasp | grab, hold |
| greed | avarice, longing |
| guarantee | assure, pledge |
| guile | cunning, deceit |
| gullible | credulous, unsuspicious |
| H | |
| habitual | accustomed, regular |
| handicap | disability, disadvantage |
| harass | annoy, disturb |
| harmless | innocuous,inoffensive |
| harsh | hard, coarse |
| hasty | abrupt, hurried |
| haughty | arrogant, pretentious |
| humiliate | humble, shame |
| hygiene | cleanliness, sanitation |
| hypocrisy | duplicity, falseness |
| I | |
| ideal | goal, perfection |
| idle | lazy, unoccupied |
| ignorant | stupid, unintelligent |
| illogical | incongruent, rambling |
| illustrious | eminent, famous |
| imitate | copy, reflect |
| immense | huge, mammoth |
| impartial | candid, impersonal |
| impatient | anxious, eager |
| implicate | accuse, insinuate |
| importune | beg, solicit |
| inadvertent | accidental, unintentional |
| indifferent | apathetic, disinterested |
| isolate | detach, quarantine |
| J | |
| jargon | argot, slang |
| jovial | genial, merry |
| judge | estimate, referee |
| justification | excuse, reason |
| juvenile | adolescent, immature |
| K | |
| keen | clever, observant |
| L | |
| label | brand, classify |
| labour | toil, work |
| lead | direct, proceed |
| lean | slim, thin |
| leave | abandon, desert |
| liberal | copious, unrestrained |
| liberal | lenient, open-minded |
| limitation | boundary, constraint |
| lucid | clear, understandable |
| lucky | auspicious, fortunate |
| M | |
| mad | furious, irate |
| manage | administer, control |
| manipulate | control, shape |
| marginal | borderline, limited |
| match | agree, correspond |
| maze | complexity, labyrinth |
| meditate | ponder, think |
| memorial | commemoration, monument |
| mention | allude, refer to |
| merge | blend, fuse |
| N | |
| narrow | confined, restricted |
| nature | aspect, character |
| necessary | mandatory, requisite |
| negate | contradict, refute |
| negligent | careless, remiss |
| negotiate | bargain, deal |
| nice | affable, benign |
| noble | aristocratic, distinguished |
| novice | beginner, nonprofessional |
| nuisance | annoyance, offense |
| O | |
| obedient | faithful, loyal |
| objection | disapproval, protest |
| obligatory | compulsory, required |
| observe | notice, watch |
| obvious | conspicuous, definite |
| offend | anger, irritate |
| offer | bid, proposal |
| omen | premonition, sign |
| omit | exclude, remove |
| opportune | advantageous, auspicious |
| P | |
| pacify | appease, placate |
| pain | ache, discomfort |
| paramount | chief, leading |
| partisan | biased, dogmatic |
| passive | inactive, lethargic |
| pause | break, cease |
| permeate | diffuse, disseminate |
| perpetuate | endure, preserve |
| perplex | astonish, baffle |
| persecute | afflict, harass |
| R | |
| radiate | effuse, emanate |
| radical | basic, fundamental |
| range | anger, furor |
| rank | arrange, classify |
| realize | accomplish, fulfill |
| recalcitrant | obstinate, stubborn |
| receptacle | container, repository |
| reconcile | atone, conciliate |
| regret | deplore, grieve |
| reliable | dependable, trustworthy |
| S | |
| sanction | approval, permit |
| scope | aim, extent |
| section | division, portion |
| settle | adjust, compromise |
| shallow | superficial, trivial |
| shrewd | careful, calculating |
| significant | distinctive, important |
| slight | delicate, slender |
| spontaneous | impromptu, unplanned |
| spread | announce, broadcast |
| stabilize | balance, steady |
| T | |
| tame | domesticate, subdue |
| tangle | intertwine, twist |
| temper | mood, nature |
| tendency | inclination, trend |
| term | cycle, duration |
| thrift | conservation, conservation |
| tough | aggressive, unyielding |
| transfer | convey, exchange |
| tumult | agitation, commotion |
| turbulent | disordered, violent |
| V | |
| vain | boastful, inflated |
| valid | authorized, legitimate |
| variety | assortment, diversify |
| verify | authenticate, substantiate |
| WORD | ANTONYMS |
| A | |
| absence | presence |
| accept | refuse |
| accurate | inaccurate |
| advantage | disadvantage |
| alive | dead |
| always | never |
| ancient | modern |
| answer | question, query |
| approval | disapproval |
| approached | receded, departed |
| abundant | scarce |
| admit | deny |
| advance | retreat, retire |
| artificial | natural |
| arrival | departure |
| ascend | descend |
| attack | defense |
| attractive | repulsive |
| attention | inattention |
| asleep | awake |
| ally | enemy |
| agree | disagree |
| B | |
| bad | good |
| backward | forward, onward |
| bend | straighten |
| beautiful | ugly |
| beginning | ending |
| below | above |
| bent | straight |
| big | small, little |
| blunt | sharp |
| better | worse |
| best | worst |
| blame | praise |
| bless | curse |
| bitter | sweet |
| borrow | lend |
| bravery | cowardice |
| build | destroy, demolish |
| bold | timid, meek |
| bright | dull |
| broad | narrow |
| C | |
| clear | vague, cloudy |
| careful | rush, careless |
| calm | troubled |
| capable | incapable |
| captivity | freedom, liberty |
| cellar | attic |
| cheap | dear, expensive |
| close | distant |
| clever | stupid |
| cold | hot |
| combine | separate |
| clockwise | anti-clockwise |
| correct | incorrect |
| conceal | reveal |
| come | go |
| common | rare |
| comfort | discomfort |
| courage | cowardice |
| cruel | kind |
| courteous | discourteous, rude |
| cunning | simple |
| D | |
| dainty | clumsy |
| danger | safety |
| dark | light |
| deep | shallow |
| decrease | increase |
| definite | indefinite |
| demand | supply |
| despair | hope |
| disappear | appear |
| disease | health |
| discourage | encourage |
| dismal | cheerful |
| doctor | patient |
| dry | wet |
| dull | clear, bright |
| dusk | dawn |
| E | |
| early | late |
| easy | difficult |
| ebb | flow |
| East | West |
| economise | waste |
| encourage | discourage |
| entrance | exit |
| employer | employee |
| empty | full |
| excited | calm |
| end | beginning |
| expand | contract |
| expensive | inexpensive, cheap |
| export | import |
| exterior | interior |
| external | internal |
| F | |
| fail | succeed |
| FALSE | TRUE |
| feeble | sturdy, strong, powerful |
| foolish | wise |
| fast | slow |
| few | many |
| famous | unknown |
| forelegs | hind legs |
| fat | thin |
| find | lose |
| first | last |
| freedom | captivity |
| fold | unfold |
| frequent | seldom |
| forget | remember |
| found | lost |
| fresh | stale |
| friend | enemy |
| fortunate | unfortunate |
| frank | secretive |
| full | empty |
| G | |
| generous | mean |
| gentle | rough |
| gather | distribute |
| glad | sorry |
| gloomy | cheerful |
| giant | dwarf, pygmy |
| granted | refused |
| great | minute, small, little |
| guardian | ward |
| guest | host |
| guilty | innocent |
| H | |
| happy | sad, miserable |
| hard | soft |
| harmful | harmless |
| hasten | dawdle |
| hate | love |
| healthy | unhealthy, ill, diseased |
| here | there |
| heavy | light |
| height | depth |
| hero | coward |
| hill | valley |
| horizontal | vertical |
| hinder | aid, help |
| honest | dishonest |
| humble | proud |
| hunger | thirst |
| I | |
| imitation | genuine |
| immense | tiny, minute |
| imprison | free |
| include | exclude |
| increase | decrease |
| inhabited | uninhabited |
| inferior | superior |
| inside | outside |
| intelligent | unintelligent, stupid |
| inhale | exhale |
| interior | exterior, outside |
| interesting | uninteresting, dull |
| internal | external |
| intentional | accidental |
| J | |
| join | separate |
| junior | senior |
| justice | injustice |
| K | |
| king | subject |
| knowledge | ignorance |
| L | |
| laugh | cry |
| lawful | unlawful |
| lazy | industrious, energetic |
| land | sea |
| landlord | tenant |
| large | little, small |
| last | first |
| lawyer | client |
| lecturer | student |
| lender | borrower |
| lengthen | shorten |
| left | right |
| less | more |
| light | dark, heavy |
| like | dislike, unlike |
| likely | unlikely |
| leader | follower |
| little | large, much, big |
| lofty | lowly |
| long | short |
| loud | soft |
| loss | find, win |
| low | high |
| loyal | disloyal |
| M | |
| mad | sane |
| magnetize | demagnetize |
| master | servant |
| mature | immature |
| maximum | minimum |
| me | you |
| merry | mirthless, sad |
| minority | majority |
| miser | spendthrift |
| misunderstand | understand |
| N | |
| narrow | wide |
| near | far, distant |
| neat | untidy |
| new | old |
| night | day |
| noisy | quiet |
| North | South |
| O | |
| obedient | disobedient |
| odd | even |
| offer | refuse |
| open | shut |
| optimist | pessimist |
| out | in |
| P | |
| parent | child |
| past | present |
| patient | impatient |
| peace | war |
| permanent | temporary |
| please | displease |
| plentiful | scarce |
| poetry | prose |
| possible | impossible |
| poverty | wealth |
| powerful | feeble, weak |
| polite | impolite, rude |
| private | public |
| prudent | imprudent |
| pretty | unsightly, ugly |
| pure | impure |
| Q | |
| qualified | unqualified |
| R | |
| rapid | slow |
| regularly | irregularly |
| rich | poor |
| right | wrong, left |
| rigid | pliable, soft |
| rough | smooth |
| S | |
| satisfactory | unsatisfactory |
| security | insecurity |
| scatter | collect |
| serious | trivial |
| second-hand | new |
| sense | nonsense |
| shopkeeper | customer |
| singular | plural |
| simple | complicated |
| slim | thick, stout |
| solid | liquid |
| sober | drunk |
| speaker | listener |
| sour | sweet |
| sorrow | joy |
| sow | reap |
| stand | lie |
| straight | crooked |
| strong | weak |
| success | failure |
| sunny | cloudy |
| T | |
| take | give |
| tall | short |
| tame | wild |
| teacher | pupil |
| thick | thin |
| tight | slack, loose |
| top | bottom |
| transparent | opaque |
| truth | untruth, lie |
| U | |
| up | down |
| V | |
| vacant | occupied |
| valuable | valueless |
| victory | defeat |
| virtue | vice |
| visible | invisible |
| voluntary | compulsory |
| vowel | consonant |
| W | |
| wax | wane |
| wisdom | folly |
| within | without |
