SOCIAL PROGRESS IN INDEPENDENT INDIA:

The Bhoodan Movement : Acharya Vinoba Bhave started this movement on 18 April 1951. It aimed at creating a just and equitable social order. It wanted the re-distribution of excess lands from the landlords among the landless poor. It encouraged voluntary surrenders. The Central and State Governments enacted laws to fix ceilings on land holdings due to the awareness created by this movement. This movement focussed on the plight of the landless poor.

The Sarvodaya Movement : This was also started by Vinoba Bhave. It had the blessings of our national leaders. It aimed at the upliftment and welfare of all. Promotion of  Cottage Industries and Khadi became the key areas of this movement. It wanted to bring a silent non-violent socio-economic revolution in India.

Development of Women : The position of women in India prior to independence was miserable. Several social legislations were passed since 1947 to improve their position. Our constitution guarantees equality of sexes. The other measures are as follows :

The Marriage Act of 1954 : This Act made inter-caste and interreligious marriages legal. It fixed the marriage age of boys 21 years and girls 18 years. Child marriage is punishable.

The Hindu Code Bill 1955 – 56 : This Bill is the Magna Carta in the history of women development in India. It explains about marriage,divorce, succession, guarandianship and adoption.

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 : This Act made monogamy legal. It outlaws polygamy among all Hindus. It confers equal rights of divorce on both men and women.

The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 : This Act gave equal right to a daughter and her children to succeed equally with the son and his children to all the property of either parent.

The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956 : This Act safeguards the mother’s right to be the natural guardian of her children. It also gives women the right to adopt a son or a daughter as in the case of men.

The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, (Amended in 1984) : This Act protects women against dowry exploitations. Dowry demand is severely punished.

The Maternity Benefits Act, 1961 : This Act gives the working women the right to maternity leave.

The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971 : This Act allows women to terminate pregnancy which would risk their physical and mental health.

The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 : This Act provides for the payment of equal remuneration to women workers along with men. It prevents discrimination on grounds of sex in matters of employment.

Other Socio-Economic Programmes : The Government of India set up the Central Social Welfare Board in 1953. There are State Social Welfare Boards in every state. They promote the welfare of women, children and the poor. Physically handicapped women, widows, orphans and destitutes are taken care of by these bodies.

National Commission for Women Act, 1990 : A National Commission for Women was set up on 31 January 1992 according to this Act. It has a President, Secretary and other members. It hears complaints from women on refusal of rights, cruelties and other

atrocities. It redresses their grievances.

The Rashtriya Mahila Kosh or The National Credit Fund for Women : This was formed on 30 March 1993. Poor and needy women who form Self-Help Groups (SHG) to start an industry or occupation are assisted financially from this fund.

The Balika Samriddhi Yojana : This scheme was started on 2 October 1997. It was modified in 1999. Female children born to poor mother below poverty line benefit by this scheme. Every female child of this category is deposited with Rs.500/- in the post-office or bank. It can be used for educational or marriage purpose when they complete 18 years. Besides they are also given scholarships to study upto X Standard.

Swa – Shakti Project : This scheme came into operation from 16 October 1998. Self-Help Groups, formed by 15 to 20 women to start some productive work, are financially assisted by the Government through this scheme. There are many more steps taken by the Government and Non- Government Organisations (NGOs) aimed at the development of women in India. The U.N.O. announced 1978 as the International Women’s Year. In Tamil Nadu 30 percent jobs are reserved for women. Women are entitled to 33 per cent reservation in the Local Bodies. There are women officers, doctors, engineers, police,

Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) and Members of Parliament (MPs). India has seen a woman Prime Minister, Governors and Chief Ministers. All these speak of the improvements in the position of women and the social progress achieved after independence.

Child Welfare : Child labour in India is a major social problem. Poor children are forced by circumstances to go for work. Our Constitution prevents the employment of children in industrial establishments. TheIndian Factories Act, 1948 prohibits employment of a boy or girl below 14 years in factories. The Plantation Labour Act, 1951 bans the employment of children below 12 years in coffee and rubber plantations. The Mines Act, 1952 restricts the employment of persons below 15 years in mines. Child Welfare Boards have been set up in all states according to the Children’s Act, 1960. The Female

Infanticide Act, 1961 prevents the killing of female children. It punishes the offenders. Many steps have been taken to eradicate child labour and educate them. Yet the problem exists in one part or other in the country due to several reasons.

Welfare of Depressed Classes : Social imbalance due to the caste system is another challenge to India. Our Constitution prevents discrimination in any form. The Untouchability Offences Act, 1955 awards punishment to those who practise untouchability. The Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities)

Act, 1989 provides severe punishment against atrocities to the S.C. and S.Ts. Apart from the legal measures the Central and State Governments follow the policy of reservation of posts in jobs and seats in educational institutions for the Scheduled castes, Scheduled Tribes and other Backward Classes. Educational scholarships, fee concessions, special and vocational training and hostels meant forthese classes have helped to bring harmonious social progress in India.

Welfare of the Minorities : The Indian Constitution gives right to the Minorities to establish educational institutions to promote their social and cultural rights. The National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992 provided for the set up of National and State Minorities Commissions. These measures have instilled a sense of security among the minority people in the country.

Welfare of the Disabled : The Government and Non-Government bodies work for the removal of physiscal disabilities. The Disabilities Act, 1955 was passed to take care of rehabilitating the disabled people. The Artificial Limb Manufacturing Corporation of India was set up at Kanpur in 1976. It produces artificial human parts for the handicapped. The National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation was set up on 24 January 1997. It extends loans to the handicapped persons for education and employment.

Welfare of the Aged : There are Government and voluntary efforts to take care of the welfare of the aged people. Old Age Homes have been set up for their stay and comfort. The Government renders assistance to several of them.

Progress of Education : Education is the powerful means to bring social progress. Education helps to bring harmonious social development. The literacy rate in India stood at 16.1 per cent in 1951. Women education was badly neglected. Education received

good attention after independence. Both the Central and State Governments are responsible for the development of education in India. The Government of India appointed the University Education Commission in 1948 under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. His birthday September 5 is celebrated as the Teacher’s Day every year. His report of 1949 led to the reorganization of our country’s educational system. Another Commission under Dr. A. Lakshmana Swamy Mudaliar was appointed in 1953. It made the school learning teaching – cum – activity based one. It wanted to make the aim of Secondary Education to produce ideal democratic citizens of India and the world. It emphasized the all round development of the child at the secondary level. The Kothari Commission or the National Education Commission was appointed in 1964. Its report of 1966 wanted to make the educational structure uniform in India. It gave importance to vocational, technical, engineering, agricultural and science education. The New Education Policy (NEP) of 1986 and the Programme of Action 1992 aimed to provide education of a satisfactory quality to all children upto 14 years of age before the start

of the 21 Century. Elementary education was given much importance in the post-independent years. Therefore the enrolment in elementary education increased form 42.6 per cent in 1951 to 94.9 per cent in 1999. Secondary education, Higher Education and University Education also received equal importance. There are more than 1.1lakh Secondary and Senior Secondary Institutions in India. There are more than 12,350 Colleges for General, Technical, Medical and  Agricultural Education. More than 250 Universities exist in India. It isdue to the increase in enrolment and the number of institutions the literacy rate has gone up to more than 65 per cent by 2000 A.D. As a result of the social and educational progress in India after 1947, there has been a tremendous social change. The caste hierarchy has been dismantled. Social mobility has become possible. The benefits of modernization reach all sections of the society. An

egalitarian society is emerging in India.

GLOSSARY OF HISTORY:

• Absolute Monarchy - A system of government headed by a monarch as the only source of power controlling all functions of the state
• Abstract – A summary of the resource
• Access Rights – Information about who can access the resource or an indication of its security status
• Accrual Method – The method by which items are added to a collection
• Accrual Periodicity – The frequency with which items are added to a collection
• Accrual Policy – The policy governing the addition of items to a collection
• Alternative Title – An alternative name for the resource
• Anthropology - The study of humanity, culturally and physically, in all times and places. Forensic anthropology is the application of anthropological knowledge and techniques in a legal context, to detect crime and identify criminals. This involves detailed knowledge of osteology
• Archaeology - The study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and the analysis of physical remains
• Archive - A collection of documents and records
• Artifact - A material object of a culture such as a tool, an article of clothing or a prepared food
• Audience – A class of entity for whom the resource is intended or useful
• Autobiography - An individual's account of their life
• Available – Date (often a range) that the resource became or will become available
• Avalonia - A separate plate in the Early Paleozoic consisting of much of Northern Europe, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and some coastal parts of New England

• Baltica - A separate continental plate of the Early Paleozoic composed of the United Kingdom, Scandinavia, European Russia and Central Europe; named for the Baltic Sea
• Barbarian - A Greek word adopted by the Romans to refer to any people who did not adopt the Roman way of life. It is said to have come originally from the sound bar-bar, which, according to the Greeks, was supposed to be the noise that people made when speaking foreign languages
• Bering Land Bridge - The vast tundra plain that was exposed between Asia and North America during the Last Glacial Maximum, about 21,000 years ago; it served as a migration route for people, animals, and plants. Also known as Beringia
• Bibliography - A list of works, including books, journals and essays, on a particular subject
• Bibliographic Citation – A bibliographic reference for the resource
• Biography - An account of an individual's life, written by another person
• Blitzkrieg - German for 'lightning war'. A military strategy used by the Germans at the beginning of World War II to achieve victory through a series of quick offensives, especially in Belgium, Holland and France. After an initial bombardment, armour and motorised infantry were mobilised rapidly to break the weakest parts of the enemy line
• Bolsheviks - Having split from the Russian Socialist movement in 1903, the Bolsheviks ('Majority') developed into a small, tightly organised, revolutionary Marxist group led by Lenin, for whom violence was a legitimate instrument of power. In November 1917, they took control of a chaotic Russia, becoming the de facto rulers after the subsequent civil war. They then renamed themselves the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU)
• Book Review - A critical examination of a text, usually including a summary of the work and opposing views
• Bourgeoisie - The capitalist class (see capitalism below) that came to be known as the middle class, between the aristocracy and the working class. A new middle class of merchants and businessmen prospered throughout Europe from the 16th century, and especially in Britain, which Napoleon described as a 'nation of shopkeepers'. The term 'bourgeois' is used derogatorily to describe anything considered humdrum, unimaginative and/or selfishly materialistic
• Bronze Age - In Britain, this was the period – from about 2300 to 700 BC – when metal first began to be widely used, possibly as a result of the increase in contact with Europe. However, various types of stone, particularly flint, remained very important for long after metal became available. The Bronze Age saw the introduction of cremation of the dead and burials in round barrows. The later (and best known) phases of construction at Stonehenge also date from this period

• Caesar - Contrary to popular opinion, the term 'Caesar' did not originally mean 'emperor', although in modern times, it has come to be defined as a synonym for autocrat. When the Roman leader Gaius Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, his nephew and successor Augustus had himself formally adopted by the dead man and so also adopted the family name Caesar. Tiberius and Caligula inherited it by adoption as well. Later Roman emperors acquired the name upon their succession or when they were formally adopted as heirs
• Cathaysian Terranes - A set of small landmasses that developed in tropical to subtropical latitudes on the eastern side of Pangea during the Permian and Triassic, includes modern North China (Sino-Korea), South China (Yangtze), Eastern Qiangtang, Tarim, and Indochina.
• Cimmerian Terranes - An archipelago of small landmasses that developed in tropical and subtropical latitudes on the eastern side of Pangea during the Triassic, blocks that comprised it include modern Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Tibet, and Malaysia; also called Cimmeria
• Congo Craton - A separate continental plate that rifted from the supercontinent Rodinia in the Late Precambrian; contained a large part of north-central Africa
• Context - The background and specific circumstances of a subject, such as an author's lifestyle, or the weather during a train crash
• Contributor – An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource
• Coverage – Information about who can access the resource or an indication of its security status
• Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway - The epicontinental sea that formed as marine waters from the north spread over North America from around 130 to 70 million years ago (Ma), at its peak in the Middle Cretaceous (~ 90 Ma) it extended from present-day Utah to the Appalachians and from the Arctic to the Gulf of Mexico; also referred to as the Western Interior Seaway

• Date – A point or period of time associated with an event in the life cycle of the resource
• Description – An account of the resource
• Discipline - The study, or practice, of a subject using a specific set of methods, terms and approaches. History is a discipline, as is Archaeology, Chemistry or Biology

• Encyclopedia - A written reference work, composed of informative articles arranged alphabetically. These can either focus on a particular subject or, in the case of the Encyclopædia Britannica, on everything
• Euramerica - A supercontinent that existed in the Late Silurian through Devonian, formed by the collision of Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonia; included modern North America, Greenland, Scandinavia, and Europe; also called the “Old Red Continent” for the red color of its oxidized deposits

• Gondwana - A supercontinent that existed from Cambrian to Jurassic time, mainly composed of South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Antarctica, and Australia

• History - Although commonly used to refer to events which happened earlier in time, 'history' in academic study is either the study of the past or the product of our attempts to understand the past, rather than the past itself
• Historian - An individual who studies the past
• Historiography - Either the methods and principles used in the study of history, or the written result

• Iapetus Ocean - A relatively small ocean that existed between the continents of Laurentia, Baltica, and Avalonia from the Late Precambrian to the Devonian
• Interdisciplinary - The study, or practice, of a subject which applies the methods and approaches of several disciplines. For instance, while History, Literature and Archaeology are separate disciplines, they can be combined

• Journal - A periodical which normally deals with a specific issue, for instance, National Geographic

• Laurasia - A supercontinent that existed from the Jurassic to Early Tertiary after splitting from Pangea; composed of Laurentia, Baltica, Avalonia, (modern North America, Scandinavia, Greenland, Western and Central Europe); eventually fragmented into Eurasia and North America in the Tertiary with the opening of the North Atlantic Ocean
• Laurentia - A separate continental plate that existed from the Late Precambrian to Silurian, consisting of the major part of North America, northwest Ireland, Scotland, Greenland, and pieces of Norway and Russia

• Paleo-Tethys Ocean - A large ocean that originated between eastern Gondwana, Siberia, Kazakhstan, and Baltica in the Ordovician and finally closed in the Jurassic; replaced by the Tethys Ocean as eastern Pangea was assembled
• Pangea - A supercontinent that existed from the end of the Permian to the Jurassic, assembled from large continents like Euramerica, Gondwana, and Siberia, as well as smaller landmasses like the Cathaysian and Cimmerian terranes; Greek for “all lands.”
• Pannotia - A supercontinent that existed in the Late Precambrian and gave rise to the continents of Gondwana, Laurentia, Siberia, and Baltica in the Cambrian
• Panthalassic Ocean - A vast ocean that existed from the Late Precambrian to the Jurassic, circling the globe and connecting to smaller oceans that developed throughout the Phanerozoic; also known as the Panthalassa
• Past - Events which happened previously in time
• Primary Sources - Material from, or directly related to, the past. In History, primary sources are usually letters, records or other documents created during the period that is being studied, such as diaries, legal notices or accounts. However, primary sources can include photographs, jewelry and other items

• Rodinia - A supercontinent that existed during the Late Precambrian before the supercontinent Pannotia; the oldest supercontinent for which we have a good record; Russian for "homeland"
• Reference Work - A text, usually in the form of a dictionary or encyclopedia which contains facts and information, but not normally discussions

• Secondary Sources - Material created by somebody removed from the event being studied - who was either not at the event, or was working later. For instance, all historical textbooks are secondary sources
• Siberia - A separate continental plate that existed from the Latest Precambrian to the Carboniferous, composed of a large part of central Russia, namely Siberia

• Tethys Ocean - A small ocean that existed from the Triassic to the Jurassic; as Pangea was split into Gondwana and Laurasia in the Jurassic, an arm developed westward called the Tethys Seaway or Tethys Sea

GLOSSARY OF SOCIOLOGY: (R-Z)

Race

A set of social categories based upon a range of biological variations. There is no biological base for racial categories, although it is widely believed to be so.

Racism

Attitudes of prejudice, intolerance and bigotry based upon the illusion of racial categories.

Rainbow

When light passes through a prism (triangular shaped) of glass or water it becomes separated into a range of frequencies. Those different frequencies are perceived by our eyes as different colours. When the sun passes through raindrops in the air, the illusion of a rainbow appears in the sky. Colours do not exist as such in nature; what we see as colours of things are the variations in light frequencies bounced of the objects that appear so coloured.

Rainbow Coalition

Coined by Jesse Jackson in his Operation Breadbasket in South Side Chicago, the rainbow coalition implied that it was composed of people of all colours. Later Nelson Mandela and Desmond Tutu picked up the term to describe South Africa as multi coloured after the Apartheid era.

Rationalisation

A process of becoming more based upon logic and reason. Weber said rationalisation was expressed in bureaucracy and the formation of organisations based on reason rather than on tradition or other standards.

Recidivism

Rate at which convicted criminals return to committing crimes after finishing their sentences.

Reductionism

The mistake of seeking explanation of a higher level of complexity by referring to variables at lower levels of complexity. Durkheim said we should not seek to explain social variables or social facts by psychological or biological facts.

Relativity

The idea that there are no absolutes, but only things that have characteristics which are relative to others. Cultural relativity says there are no absolute values, but only those which are in each community or society, and those vary.

Religion

A formal organisation which is based upon a set of beliefs.

Religious

Pertaining to theological beliefs or to organisations based upon them.

Reproduction (Cultural)

The process by which culture in all its dimensions, based upon ideas and actions, is able to continue even when its carriers (humans) may come and go, be born or die.

Reproduction (Sexual)

A process of biological reproduction of plants and animals which require the union of a male and female semi cell to produce a new cell that will grow to become a new individual plant or animal.

Reproduction (Social)

The process by which society and its institutions, based upon ideas and actions, is able to continue even when its carriers (humans) may come and go, be born or die.

Research

Investigation. The observing of facts so as to test a scientific theory. The search for written or other material about a specified topic.

Research (Community)

Research about the nature and operation of communities as social organisations.

Residence

A sheltered location for an individual or a group to rest, sleep and eat.

Restorative (Justice)

Legal process where the objective is not punishment of perpetrators, but to restore the moral "balance" of the victims. Restorative Justice

Revolt

An event where subject peoples, using force or persuasion, seek to remove their leaders.

Revolution

In physics, the moving full circle (180 degrees) of a wheel or any rotating object.
A major transformation in all aspects of a society, such as the agricultural revolution or industrial revolution.

Role

The set of expected actions and responsibilities that apply to a named social position.

Sanction

A response to an action that may be positive (rewards) or negative (punishment).

Sapir-Whorf

A theory first proposed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf that learning a language influences how we perceive reality.

Scarcity

Relatively not available. One of two factors that give value to goods and services and make them wealth.

Schism

A huge divide. A social schism is some barrier dividing different categories or groups in a community.

Schmaltz

From Yiddish. Chicken fat.

Science

A method of discovery and the body of knowledge accumulated by it.

Secondary Analysis

A research method that takes the discovered information of other observers and analyses them in a new way.

Settlement

An habitat of human beings: city, town, village, hamlet.

Sex

Plants (or parts of plants) and animals are divided into two categories, male and female, both of which are usually needed for reproduction. Genetically, there are other arrangements of X and Y chromosomes, so a few individuals are neither male or female or both. Compare with gender.
A word often used meaning sexual intercourse.

Sexism

A form of bigotry, intolerance, prejudice and discrimination based upon sexual differences between individuals, which are biological, and their social extrapolations, which are called gender. Similar to ageism and racism in concept (physical differences; social extrapolations).

Sibling

Brother or sister.

Simple

Not complex. The general direction of change in the biomass and in society, is from simple to complex.

Skills

Abilities, attained by training, of individuals to achieve things.

Slave

A social status of an individual who is considered the property of another person considered to be the owner of the slave. Ownership confers the rights of sale and purchase.

Social

Pertaining to society.

Social Problem

A social problem is qualitatively different from an individual problem.  What makes it social is that the problem is “systemic” meaning that it is a problem in the system, not merely an anomaly.  The “system” here is society itself.  It may be possible to alleviate specific manifestations of the problem, but to solve the whole problem requires social change, and that implies the need for social intervention.

Socialisation

A process, based upon learning the meanings of symbols, wherein the biological entity of a new human begins and continues to learn culture.
A means of society and culture in reproducing itself and continuing after its carriers, humans, are removed.

Socialism

An ideology in which society is seen as having more importance than individuals.

Socialist

An individual who supports the ideology of socialism.

Society

The patterns of ideas and action of human beings, often seen as a system that behaves as if it is outside the individuals which carry it.

Sociological Perspective

The ability to perceive and understand society.  Sociological Perspective

Sociology

The scientific study of society.

Sociology (Applied)

The application of the knowledge obtained by society, for practical purposes.

Sociology (Pure)

The use of the scientific method to obtain information about society, discovered so as to advance knowledge rather than for practical purposes.

Solidarity (Mechanical)

A concept presented by Durkheim suggesting that the "glue" holding simple communities and societies together was based upon the similarities of members.

Solidarity (Organic)

A concept presented by Durkheim suggesting that the "glue" holding complex communities and societies together was based upon division of labour and interdependence.

Sophomore

A "wise moron." Common name for a second year college student. From "soph" meaning wise, and "more" meaning stupid, ignorant or foolish.

Spin Doctoring

Taking an unpleasant or embarrassing event and using different words to make it look better. See Newspeak.

Spirit (Community)

The idea that a community or association can have optimism, loyalty, anima, and a positive attitude, as if, but not scientifically confirmed, the community has a spirit in it.

State

The government, and all its institutions, of a nation.

Status

Condition.
The attributes, including the degree to which it is respected, of a social role.

Stereotype

A set of over simplified characteristics that describe person in a category, often those which exaggerate faults or turn assets into liabilities. Often applied to visible minorities, some age groups and to all individuals in a particular gender.

Stereotyping

The process of making assumptions about persons based on stereotypes (see above) of their category.

Strange Fish

Most fish do not exit water, so do not have the absence of water to compare with it, thus do not know what water is. Sociologists use as a metaphor this to describe individuals who can not know the existence of culture, because they can not compare it with its absence.

Stratification (Social)

Layers of social classes where members of society in each layer have about the same level of power, prestige and wealth.

Strength

Power. Ability to achieve a desired objective.

Structure

A model of a social institution which sees it as frame on which behaviour between its members is attached.

Sub-Culture

A variation in culture found in a sub category or a group within a society or community.

Suicide (act)

A very personal act based upon what might be the ultimate of freedom of choice, ending one’s own life. It is very difficult to interview those who are successful to ask why, because they tend to be deceased. Interviewing those who are not successful does not guarantee that they have the same motivations and reasoning of the successful ones.

Suicide (Rate)

Durkheim argued that a rate of suicide among a specified social category or group was a social fact, and should not be explained by psychological variables.

Sunup

When discussing culture lag, and pointing out that our languages is often reflecting an old concept that is no longer accepted, we use "sunup" as an example, When we say the sun comes up on the morning, or down in the evening, we are using language that dates to a time in the past when we thought the world was flat and the centre of the universe. Now astronomy tells us that the world is like a globe, and rotating on its axis, giving the illusion of the sun rising. 

Superorganic

In the three levels of complexity in the universe, inorganic, lifeless, is at the bottom, most simple. Organic is in the middle, based on but transcending the inorganic, having enough complexity to support life.  Superorganic is the highest level of complexity, based on but transcending the organic, as humans carry culture, but it is composed of symbols.

Surveys

One of the popular methods of doing sociological research. Useful for finding a small amount of information about a large number of persons.

Survival

To survive means to continue living after some condition or experience which might threaten that living.
If something can survive, it will be able to reproduce itself. This applies to organic life forms and superorganic social forms.

Sustainable

To be sustainable in the environmental sense means that a social institution can continue to survive without destroying its physical environment.
To be sustainable in the development assistance sense is to establish a project which will continue after the outside funding is ended.

Symbol

Anything which can stand for something else, having meaning.

Symbolic Interaction

One of the three classical perspectives in Sociology, where the meanings of our actions is important, and where we look at the way people behave in response to their assumptions about how other people will interpret the behaviour.

Taboo

A proscription where social values forbid the doing of something. Often applied to eating specified foods.

Taboo (Incest)

The strong negative judgement and feeling of horror at sexual incest. Apparently one of our longest standing institutions and perhaps the basis of human family systems.

Technological Dimension

The dimension of culture that includes tools, our ability to create them, modify them, use them, and to communicate their design and use to others. The interface between society and the physical environment. Capital.  Technology

Technology

Our system of tools. Ranging from large complex systems such as agriculture or industry, to individual tools or sets of tools, as found in a plumber’s box or a doctor’s bag.

Terrorist

A person who uses violence to frighten others in pursuit of a political objective. A freedom fighter.

Thought

The process that goes on in our minds, based on symbols that we use in communicating with each other.

Tools

Goods that are not immediately consumed, but produced in order to increase further production. Capital.

Totem

A symbol usually of an animal or other entity in nature, which is used to label and identify a social group such as a family or clan. Very often there is a food prohibition against members of that group eating the identified animal.

Totem Pole

Totem poles used by West Coast First Nations often tell stories, and do not represent totemic symbols.

Town

A human settlement or habitat smaller than a city and larger than a village.

Transcend

To go beyond. Used originally in a theological sense, in sociology it is used to describe how culture, while carried by individual humans, goes beyond the individuals in how it behaves.

Tribal People or Tribals

A term used to describe people in India, often located in marginalised areas, who do not belong to the standard caste system.

Tribe

A technical term in political anthropology meaning a level of political complexity above a band but below a kingdom.
Misused as a term of prejudice to identify ethnic groups remaining from pre colonial political states.

Trust

To have an attitude that someone will keep his or her promises and be reliable.
One of the sixteen elements of organisational and community strength, earned though honest and transparent behaviour.

Unity

A variable in communities indicting the level to which members will work together, respect each others differences, and heal over social schisms.

Unobtrusive Measures

A characteristic of some social science research where the persons being observed are not aware of the observation. It often uses books such as telephone books and newspapers to make the observations.

Urbanisation

Social change in the direction of greater populations in settlements, greater population density, increased social complexity, and greater resemblance to cities.

Urbanism

An ideology and life style of acceptance and support of the values and social organisation of cities.

Utility

Usefulness. One of the two elements of wealth, which gives value to goods and services identified as wealth.

Utopia

An imaginary society, like Erehwon, where everything is perfect.

Value-Aesthetic Dimension

A cultural dimension in which the judgements of people are made about right versus wrong, good versus bad and beautiful versus ugly.

A characteristic of wealth, any good or service, if it is relatively useful and relatively scarce.

Values

The shared judgements of people in communities.

Verstehen

From German, the meaning that people put towards their actions, thoughts and symbols. Weber said that an understanding of the nature of society required an understanding of the meanings people have.

Village

A human settlement or habitat which is smaller than a town but larger than a hamlet.

Visible Minority

An ethnic group in which the members, by their biological or physical characteristics, sometimes by their costumes and behaviour – eg Jews and Palestinians, are easily identified by looking at them.

Wealth

Wealth is what is distributed in any economic system. It is any goods or services – ultimately goods because of the services they provide – characterised by relative utility and relative scarcity.

Wealth Generation

Sometimes called income generation, where there is a genuine creation (generation) of wealth by a value added process, and not merely a transfer of cash. Income generation

Weltshautung

The notion that learning a language contains in it the perception of reality. See Sapir-Whorf.

Workers

People who provide (sell) their labour for surviving.

Working Class

In a stratification system, those people who work for a living. Karl Marx called them the "proletariat."