GLOSSARY OF SOCIOLOGY: (R-Z)

Race

A set of social categories based upon a range of biological variations. There is no biological base for racial categories, although it is widely believed to be so.

Racism

Attitudes of prejudice, intolerance and bigotry based upon the illusion of racial categories.

Rainbow

When light passes through a prism (triangular shaped) of glass or water it becomes separated into a range of frequencies. Those different frequencies are perceived by our eyes as different colours. When the sun passes through raindrops in the air, the illusion of a rainbow appears in the sky. Colours do not exist as such in nature; what we see as colours of things are the variations in light frequencies bounced of the objects that appear so coloured.

Rainbow Coalition

Coined by Jesse Jackson in his Operation Breadbasket in South Side Chicago, the rainbow coalition implied that it was composed of people of all colours. Later Nelson Mandela and Desmond Tutu picked up the term to describe South Africa as multi coloured after the Apartheid era.

Rationalisation

A process of becoming more based upon logic and reason. Weber said rationalisation was expressed in bureaucracy and the formation of organisations based on reason rather than on tradition or other standards.

Recidivism

Rate at which convicted criminals return to committing crimes after finishing their sentences.

Reductionism

The mistake of seeking explanation of a higher level of complexity by referring to variables at lower levels of complexity. Durkheim said we should not seek to explain social variables or social facts by psychological or biological facts.

Relativity

The idea that there are no absolutes, but only things that have characteristics which are relative to others. Cultural relativity says there are no absolute values, but only those which are in each community or society, and those vary.

Religion

A formal organisation which is based upon a set of beliefs.

Religious

Pertaining to theological beliefs or to organisations based upon them.

Reproduction (Cultural)

The process by which culture in all its dimensions, based upon ideas and actions, is able to continue even when its carriers (humans) may come and go, be born or die.

Reproduction (Sexual)

A process of biological reproduction of plants and animals which require the union of a male and female semi cell to produce a new cell that will grow to become a new individual plant or animal.

Reproduction (Social)

The process by which society and its institutions, based upon ideas and actions, is able to continue even when its carriers (humans) may come and go, be born or die.

Research

Investigation. The observing of facts so as to test a scientific theory. The search for written or other material about a specified topic.

Research (Community)

Research about the nature and operation of communities as social organisations.

Residence

A sheltered location for an individual or a group to rest, sleep and eat.

Restorative (Justice)

Legal process where the objective is not punishment of perpetrators, but to restore the moral "balance" of the victims. Restorative Justice

Revolt

An event where subject peoples, using force or persuasion, seek to remove their leaders.

Revolution

In physics, the moving full circle (180 degrees) of a wheel or any rotating object.
A major transformation in all aspects of a society, such as the agricultural revolution or industrial revolution.

Role

The set of expected actions and responsibilities that apply to a named social position.

Sanction

A response to an action that may be positive (rewards) or negative (punishment).

Sapir-Whorf

A theory first proposed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf that learning a language influences how we perceive reality.

Scarcity

Relatively not available. One of two factors that give value to goods and services and make them wealth.

Schism

A huge divide. A social schism is some barrier dividing different categories or groups in a community.

Schmaltz

From Yiddish. Chicken fat.

Science

A method of discovery and the body of knowledge accumulated by it.

Secondary Analysis

A research method that takes the discovered information of other observers and analyses them in a new way.

Settlement

An habitat of human beings: city, town, village, hamlet.

Sex

Plants (or parts of plants) and animals are divided into two categories, male and female, both of which are usually needed for reproduction. Genetically, there are other arrangements of X and Y chromosomes, so a few individuals are neither male or female or both. Compare with gender.
A word often used meaning sexual intercourse.

Sexism

A form of bigotry, intolerance, prejudice and discrimination based upon sexual differences between individuals, which are biological, and their social extrapolations, which are called gender. Similar to ageism and racism in concept (physical differences; social extrapolations).

Sibling

Brother or sister.

Simple

Not complex. The general direction of change in the biomass and in society, is from simple to complex.

Skills

Abilities, attained by training, of individuals to achieve things.

Slave

A social status of an individual who is considered the property of another person considered to be the owner of the slave. Ownership confers the rights of sale and purchase.

Social

Pertaining to society.

Social Problem

A social problem is qualitatively different from an individual problem.  What makes it social is that the problem is “systemic” meaning that it is a problem in the system, not merely an anomaly.  The “system” here is society itself.  It may be possible to alleviate specific manifestations of the problem, but to solve the whole problem requires social change, and that implies the need for social intervention.

Socialisation

A process, based upon learning the meanings of symbols, wherein the biological entity of a new human begins and continues to learn culture.
A means of society and culture in reproducing itself and continuing after its carriers, humans, are removed.

Socialism

An ideology in which society is seen as having more importance than individuals.

Socialist

An individual who supports the ideology of socialism.

Society

The patterns of ideas and action of human beings, often seen as a system that behaves as if it is outside the individuals which carry it.

Sociological Perspective

The ability to perceive and understand society.  Sociological Perspective

Sociology

The scientific study of society.

Sociology (Applied)

The application of the knowledge obtained by society, for practical purposes.

Sociology (Pure)

The use of the scientific method to obtain information about society, discovered so as to advance knowledge rather than for practical purposes.

Solidarity (Mechanical)

A concept presented by Durkheim suggesting that the "glue" holding simple communities and societies together was based upon the similarities of members.

Solidarity (Organic)

A concept presented by Durkheim suggesting that the "glue" holding complex communities and societies together was based upon division of labour and interdependence.

Sophomore

A "wise moron." Common name for a second year college student. From "soph" meaning wise, and "more" meaning stupid, ignorant or foolish.

Spin Doctoring

Taking an unpleasant or embarrassing event and using different words to make it look better. See Newspeak.

Spirit (Community)

The idea that a community or association can have optimism, loyalty, anima, and a positive attitude, as if, but not scientifically confirmed, the community has a spirit in it.

State

The government, and all its institutions, of a nation.

Status

Condition.
The attributes, including the degree to which it is respected, of a social role.

Stereotype

A set of over simplified characteristics that describe person in a category, often those which exaggerate faults or turn assets into liabilities. Often applied to visible minorities, some age groups and to all individuals in a particular gender.

Stereotyping

The process of making assumptions about persons based on stereotypes (see above) of their category.

Strange Fish

Most fish do not exit water, so do not have the absence of water to compare with it, thus do not know what water is. Sociologists use as a metaphor this to describe individuals who can not know the existence of culture, because they can not compare it with its absence.

Stratification (Social)

Layers of social classes where members of society in each layer have about the same level of power, prestige and wealth.

Strength

Power. Ability to achieve a desired objective.

Structure

A model of a social institution which sees it as frame on which behaviour between its members is attached.

Sub-Culture

A variation in culture found in a sub category or a group within a society or community.

Suicide (act)

A very personal act based upon what might be the ultimate of freedom of choice, ending one’s own life. It is very difficult to interview those who are successful to ask why, because they tend to be deceased. Interviewing those who are not successful does not guarantee that they have the same motivations and reasoning of the successful ones.

Suicide (Rate)

Durkheim argued that a rate of suicide among a specified social category or group was a social fact, and should not be explained by psychological variables.

Sunup

When discussing culture lag, and pointing out that our languages is often reflecting an old concept that is no longer accepted, we use "sunup" as an example, When we say the sun comes up on the morning, or down in the evening, we are using language that dates to a time in the past when we thought the world was flat and the centre of the universe. Now astronomy tells us that the world is like a globe, and rotating on its axis, giving the illusion of the sun rising. 

Superorganic

In the three levels of complexity in the universe, inorganic, lifeless, is at the bottom, most simple. Organic is in the middle, based on but transcending the inorganic, having enough complexity to support life.  Superorganic is the highest level of complexity, based on but transcending the organic, as humans carry culture, but it is composed of symbols.

Surveys

One of the popular methods of doing sociological research. Useful for finding a small amount of information about a large number of persons.

Survival

To survive means to continue living after some condition or experience which might threaten that living.
If something can survive, it will be able to reproduce itself. This applies to organic life forms and superorganic social forms.

Sustainable

To be sustainable in the environmental sense means that a social institution can continue to survive without destroying its physical environment.
To be sustainable in the development assistance sense is to establish a project which will continue after the outside funding is ended.

Symbol

Anything which can stand for something else, having meaning.

Symbolic Interaction

One of the three classical perspectives in Sociology, where the meanings of our actions is important, and where we look at the way people behave in response to their assumptions about how other people will interpret the behaviour.

Taboo

A proscription where social values forbid the doing of something. Often applied to eating specified foods.

Taboo (Incest)

The strong negative judgement and feeling of horror at sexual incest. Apparently one of our longest standing institutions and perhaps the basis of human family systems.

Technological Dimension

The dimension of culture that includes tools, our ability to create them, modify them, use them, and to communicate their design and use to others. The interface between society and the physical environment. Capital.  Technology

Technology

Our system of tools. Ranging from large complex systems such as agriculture or industry, to individual tools or sets of tools, as found in a plumber’s box or a doctor’s bag.

Terrorist

A person who uses violence to frighten others in pursuit of a political objective. A freedom fighter.

Thought

The process that goes on in our minds, based on symbols that we use in communicating with each other.

Tools

Goods that are not immediately consumed, but produced in order to increase further production. Capital.

Totem

A symbol usually of an animal or other entity in nature, which is used to label and identify a social group such as a family or clan. Very often there is a food prohibition against members of that group eating the identified animal.

Totem Pole

Totem poles used by West Coast First Nations often tell stories, and do not represent totemic symbols.

Town

A human settlement or habitat smaller than a city and larger than a village.

Transcend

To go beyond. Used originally in a theological sense, in sociology it is used to describe how culture, while carried by individual humans, goes beyond the individuals in how it behaves.

Tribal People or Tribals

A term used to describe people in India, often located in marginalised areas, who do not belong to the standard caste system.

Tribe

A technical term in political anthropology meaning a level of political complexity above a band but below a kingdom.
Misused as a term of prejudice to identify ethnic groups remaining from pre colonial political states.

Trust

To have an attitude that someone will keep his or her promises and be reliable.
One of the sixteen elements of organisational and community strength, earned though honest and transparent behaviour.

Unity

A variable in communities indicting the level to which members will work together, respect each others differences, and heal over social schisms.

Unobtrusive Measures

A characteristic of some social science research where the persons being observed are not aware of the observation. It often uses books such as telephone books and newspapers to make the observations.

Urbanisation

Social change in the direction of greater populations in settlements, greater population density, increased social complexity, and greater resemblance to cities.

Urbanism

An ideology and life style of acceptance and support of the values and social organisation of cities.

Utility

Usefulness. One of the two elements of wealth, which gives value to goods and services identified as wealth.

Utopia

An imaginary society, like Erehwon, where everything is perfect.

Value-Aesthetic Dimension

A cultural dimension in which the judgements of people are made about right versus wrong, good versus bad and beautiful versus ugly.

A characteristic of wealth, any good or service, if it is relatively useful and relatively scarce.

Values

The shared judgements of people in communities.

Verstehen

From German, the meaning that people put towards their actions, thoughts and symbols. Weber said that an understanding of the nature of society required an understanding of the meanings people have.

Village

A human settlement or habitat which is smaller than a town but larger than a hamlet.

Visible Minority

An ethnic group in which the members, by their biological or physical characteristics, sometimes by their costumes and behaviour – eg Jews and Palestinians, are easily identified by looking at them.

Wealth

Wealth is what is distributed in any economic system. It is any goods or services – ultimately goods because of the services they provide – characterised by relative utility and relative scarcity.

Wealth Generation

Sometimes called income generation, where there is a genuine creation (generation) of wealth by a value added process, and not merely a transfer of cash. Income generation

Weltshautung

The notion that learning a language contains in it the perception of reality. See Sapir-Whorf.

Workers

People who provide (sell) their labour for surviving.

Working Class

In a stratification system, those people who work for a living. Karl Marx called them the "proletariat."